International Migration Outlook 2025

2. Recent developments in migration policy

Abstract

This chapter provides an overview of the changes in the immigration policies of OECD countries during the period 2024‑2025, with a particular focus on policy changes linked with regularisation programmes related to employment.

In Brief

Key findings

• In reaction to very high migration inflows, a number of OECD countries have set explicit objectives to reduce migration, sometimes on overall migration or on specific categories.

• Labour migration policies are increasingly tailored to talent attraction and to meet specific labour market needs. This has been done by adjusting skills thresholds, usually upwards, by modifying quotas for labour migrants, often to increase them, and to more broadly revise eligibility criteria. New pathways for seasonal and skilled workers are being created.

• Shortage occupation lists for labour migration have mostly expanded, and labour market tests in countries which use them have mostly been streamlined.

• Asylum systems have become more restrictive in many countries, with faster procedures, reduced benefits, and new limits on family reunification, although some countries have introduced measures to improve access.

• International student policies are under review, with a number of countries tightening admission and post-study rights, while others are enhancing retention pathways to support labour market integration.

• Digitalisation of migration systems continues to advance, improving application processes, data management, and service delivery across multiple OECD countries.

• Regional and bilateral co‑operation on migration has intensified, with new agreements facilitating labour mobility, return, and protection, including responses to climate‑related displacement.

• Regularisation mechanisms have been used to address labour shortages in several OECD countries, often tied to employment in specific sectors, though implementation challenges remain.

• By institutionalising rolling or sector-specific regularisation schemes, often linked to shortage occupations and integration criteria, some countries are integrating them into broader migration management strategies.

Major policy trends in 2024‑2025

Political shifts, often following elections, and responses to several years of growing migration, drove many of the policy changes in 2024‑2025 in OECD countries. Record migration inflows and increasing asylum applications in 2022 and 2023 met with policy responses aiming to regulate migration more closely, if not setting policy objectives to reduce overall migration. For example, the United Kingdom Government announced its objective to reduce net migration in its White Paper of May 2025, while Belgium’s 2025 Federal Coalition Agreement aims to reduce migration in asylum and family reunification. The Netherlands had already set reducing migration as a goal in its 2024 coalition agreement. Canada also set, for the first time, a threshold for overall temporary residents, including international students (as a proportion of its population), and has decided to reduce immigration targets.

Talent attraction remains however a common goal, with some competition and benchmarking among countries is apparent in this category. The levers of labour migration policy are being pulled to try to achieve greater accuracy in meeting labour needs. For other migration categories, the trend is largely towards restrictions and more efforts are devoted to increasing forced and voluntary returns.

Labour migration is subject to more detailed and often stricter eligibility criteria, but not necessarily lower overall numbers

There is a clear trend, already apparent in 2023, of OECD countries structuring their labour migration channels to link them more closely to specific labour market needs. This has in many cases meant placing new restrictions on labour migration, whether in terms of numbers or in terms of the characteristics of labour migrants admitted.

One of the most visible signs of policies to limit migration can be seen in programme quotas or targets. For example, Canada is making an effort to reduce their share of temporary residents to 5% by the end of 2026. There were 673 650 temporary residents for 2025, falling to notional levels of 516 600 in 2026 and 543 600 in 2027. Student targets were 305 900 for each year, and 82 000 temporary foreign workers each year, with the category of International Mobility Program accounting for the remainder and comprising the planned decline. Meanwhile, the target for permanent residence admissions to Canada have been curtailed from prior three‑year levels plans, to 395 000 in 2025 (previously 480 000) and 380 000 in 2026 (previously 500 000), with declines in the different economic class categories.

Countries where large labour migration programmes are driven by quotas have also seen changes. In some cases, these were reduced, as in Korea, which reduced its non-professional worker quotas, from the record high of 165 000 in 2024 to 130 000 in 2025. Other quota categories in Korea, however, such as seasonal workers and skilled workers, increased. Quotas have been expanded for seasonal workers in Austria. Germany doubled its quota for workers from the Western Balkans to 50 000. In Greece, the maximum number of positions to be filled by third-country nationals in 2025 was set at 89 920, a substantial increase from the previous years, although the seasonal quota within this – 45 620 – is a reduction from the previous 2023‑2024 planning levels. Ireland doubled the quota for care workers and carers in the home under General Employment Permits to 2 000. Italy set quotas for work permits at 151 000 for 2024, up from 136 000 in 2023, with more than half for seasonal workers. The Italian Government announced its 2025 quota at 165 000 and three‑year quota forecast for 2026‑2028 with 164 850 for 2026, slightly increasing in the following years – more than half for seasonal work. The Japanese Government announced, in April 2025, targets for the Specified Skilled Worker programme for 2024‑2029 of 820 000, twice the target for the first five years of this programme. Israel lifted its quotas for foreign workers, and for the first time in 2024 a general ceiling was set on the stock of foreign workers at 3.3% of the total resident population.

In other cases, the quotas remained mostly unchanged. Czechia maintained its quotas for its Qualified Worker programme, although it added some additional spots in 2025. Romania kept its quota for work permits at 100 000 in 2025, the same as in previous years, although from 2024 renewals will no longer be counted against the quota. Switzerland maintained its quotas for third-country nationals at the same level in 2024 and 2025, 8 500 plus 3 500 for UK nationals.

Conversely some countries reduced their numerical limits for employment-based migration or adapted their approach. Hungary revised its temporary work programme in March 2024, creating a “Guest Worker Permit” valid for specific roles with specific employers and for a maximum of three years; only certain nationals are eligible (Armenia, Georgia and the Philippines). The quota for the “Guest Worker Permit” was reduced from 65 000 in 2024 to 35 000 in 2025. In Austria, the annual quota (Settlement Ordinance) was lower in 2024 than 2023, although this applies only to certain categories of migrant. Lithuania replaced its previous sector-based quota decisions with a general population-based quota, set at 1.4% of the resident population (or 24 830 in 2025), for third-country nationals entering for employment; a higher wage threshold applies once the quota is reached – although highly qualified specialists are exempt.

In countries applying firm-level quotas, adjustments were also made in line with overall policy directions. In Canada, the ceiling was lowered for low-wage temporary foreign workers to 10% of the workforce in 2024, down from 20%, although some sectors are exempt. In Türkiye, which generally applies a 1:5 foreign worker-to-national requirement, large firms with high turnover are now exempt from the quotas for the first five employees and in certain sectors.

Some new labour migration programmes have been introduced. Hungary, in addition to introducing the “Guest Worker Permit” in 2024, also introduced a “National Permit”, in effect from 2025. While initially limited to certain occupations, in mid‑2025 it was opened up to all occupations and the list of eligible nationalities expanded from six to eight. In 2024, Japan enacted legislation to replace the long-standing Technical Intern Training Program with a new labour migration channel, “Employment for Skill Development”, to start in April 2027. Ireland introduced a seasonal employment permit in 2025, with its first pilot application in the horticultural sector. New Zealand also added new seasonal pathways in 2025.

Elsewhere, labour channels have seen facilitations. New Zealand introduced changes in 2024 to make it easier to qualify for the Accredited Employer Work Visa, removing the median wage threshold and reducing work experience requirements. Spain, in 2024, adopted changes to its seasonal work programme with authorisations valid for up to four years, allowing up to nine months work annually in Spain contingent on their returning home between seasons.

Germany, implementing the 2023 Skilled Workers Immigration Act, introduced a temporary fast-track procedure for temporary work visas and permits, for foreigners offered jobs in shortage sectors including healthcare, IT, engineering, skilled trades, and transport. The accelerated procedures apply to the first 25 000 applicants.

Skills thresholds have moved up in some countries. The United Kingdom raised the education threshold for its main work permit scheme, in line with policy directions in the “Restoring Control over the Immigration System” White Paper published in May 2025. The qualification requirement for new Skilled Worker visa applicants has been raised from RQF Level 3 (A-levels) to RQF Level 6 (degree level). The meant that many occupations previously eligible were excluded, although lower-RQF jobs on the new Interim Temporary Shortage List or Immigration Salary List are still eligible.

For skilled migrants who have not completed their recognition process yet, some countries have introduced provisions to admit them while the process is underway. Denmark’s “Authorisation Scheme” for foreign healthcare professionals upskilling to achieve certification for regulated health professions was modified in 2024, to allow work for adaptation or training, and expanded beyond doctors and nurses to other healthcare professionals. The scheme now allows a six‑month job-search period upon completion of the training. Germany, as part of its ongoing implementation of the November 2023 Skilled Workers Immigration Act, introduced provisions to allow entry for workers in regulated professions even if full recognition is pending, provided the migrant has a job offer and partial recognition.

Shortage occupation lists and sectors for labour migration are mostly expanding

Another indicator of the trend in labour migration policy is the extent of shortage occupation lists or shortage sector determinations, and the stringency of labour market tests. Along with a tight labour market, shortage lists have expanded in many countries. Denmark expanded its Positive List for shortage highly qualified and skilled occupations, to 162 and 49 occupations, respectively; social and healthcare workers were added, although with a limit of 1 000. Ireland’s Critical Skills list expanded from 52 in 2023 to more than 80 by the end of 2024. Some lists grew only slightly; Austria’s 2025 list has 81 occupations, up from 78 in 2024, as well as supplementary regional occupation lists. Japan expanded the number of sectors and occupations eligible under its Specified Skilled Worker system. Korea’s non-professional temporary work visa also expanded in 2024 to cover additional occupations in restaurants, forestry and mining. France introduced, in 2024, a four‑year residence permit for medical and pharmacy professionals. It also included agricultural professions in the shortage occupation list for all regions of metropolitan France. In 2025, France reviewed the shortage occupation list that can now also be used for targeted regularisation related to employment (see below).

Not all shortage lists expanded: Luxembourg, which introduced its first list in 2023, reduced the number of occupations on the list in 2024. Flanders cut its bottleneck list in 2025, excluding all low-skilled occupations, bringing the list from 241 to 29 occupations.

The United Kingdom, when raising the education threshold for its Skilled Worker route, introduced a new interim 18‑month Temporary Shortage List (TSL) of over 60 occupations below the education threshold in July 2025 and charged the Migration Advisory Committee with assessing it. Australia replaced its Temporary Skills Shortage visa with a Skills in Demand stream, comprising Specialist Skills, Core Skills and a Labour Agreement stream. The Core Skills Occupation list has 456 occupations; it replaced the previous system under which three separate shortage lists had more than 200 occupations each. The visa leads to permanent residence. Direct Entry into Australia’s permanent Employer Nomination Scheme, for those who were not previously temporary residents, requires occupations on the Core Skills Occupation list, as well as meeting salary thresholds.

The labour market test has been eased in a number of countries. Italy reduced the duration of its labour market test to eight days. The Slovak Republic reduced the mandatory vacancy listing from 30 to 20 working days, and the Labour Office must then decide within 15 working days instead of 30. Following its October 2024 Migration Strategy, Poland adopted, in April 2025, a reform eliminating the labour market test and replacing it with a “protected professions” list, to include occupations where local workers are available and hiring a non-national is subject restrictions. Poland also introduced, in 2025, fast-track processing for employers crucial to the Polish economy or hiring in shortage occupations. In Czechia, in 2024, provided a labour market test exemption for persons with certain nationalities (mostly non-EU/EFTA OECD countries, as well as Singapore and, from 2025, Chinese Taipei).

Other countries moved in a different direction. In Belgium, Flanders lengthened the labour market test to nine weeks along with the shortened occupational shortage list, and the obligation to justify failure to hire locally. Similarly, Latvia imposed a labour market test with the requirement to justify vacancies to the Public Employment Service, assess candidates and justify refusals to hire them.

Highly qualified workers are being facilitated

For the highly qualified, the general approach in OECD countries has been to facilitate labour migration routes. In the EU, the overall framework for the highly qualified is heavily influenced by the EU Blue Card Directive. Many countries subject to the Directive transposed its recast in 2023‑2024, leading to changes in the conditions for admission of highly-qualified workers. This includes Croatia, Czechia, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Romania, the Slovak Republic, Sweden and others. Most adjustments were in setting lower salary thresholds for specific groups and allowing recognition of prior experience of IT professionals – in lieu of educational qualifications.

Skilled workers have been facilitated in other ways. Türkiye introduced a work-permit exemption, valid up to three years, for skilled workers in certain sectors facing labour shortages, and for skilled workers holding temporary protection and humanitarian residence permits. Türkiye also lowered the salary threshold – relative to its minimum wage – for skilled workers.

Specific programmes to attract talent continue to be introduced. Germany introduced a new job-seeker visa in 2024, the “Opportunity Card”. Korea introduced a “Top-Tier Talent Visa”. On the talent attraction and retention side, Canada launched Rural and Francophone Community Integration Pilots in 2025, meant to anchor new arrivals in their local communities.

New Digital Nomad visas continue to be introduced, although these remain small-volume programmes (OECD, 2022[1]). Italy rolled one out in April 2024 and Türkiye in September 2024, followed by Bulgaria in 2025. Hungary and Czechia adapted their existing digital nomad schemes, Czechia to expand it to additional nationalities and occupations in 2025, and Hungary to raise income requirements. Türkiye, like Czechia, limits its visa to certain nationalities (in its case, Canada, the United States, and 34 European countries). Croatia extended the stay in 2025 under its Digital Nomad scheme from 9 to 18 months.

Start-up visas also expand, to address gaps in the investor and entrepreneur framework and to compete with other countries. Greece introduced a start-up investor visa in December 2024. Korea introduced a Special Visa for foreign entrepreneurial talent. Türkiye introduced a Tech Visa in 2024, offering a work permit exemption and, once the firm is established, a three‑year permit and favourable fiscal, benefit and family reunification conditions.

Golden Visa schemes, on the other hand, are being phased out and made more restrictive, in response to concern over their impact on housing for locals and the limited evidence of their overall positive impact. Greece doubled the real estate threshold for its Golden Visa scheme in 2024, to EUR 800 000 in high-demand areas, with a ban on short-term rental of property acquired. Spain formally closed its Golden Visa programme in April 2025, due to concern over rising housing costs and low return of the scheme.

Other countries however continue to introduce new investor visas. Hungary, for example, introduced a ten‑year “guest investor” permit. New Zealand introduced two new active investor categories in 2025, for capital amounts of NZD 5 and 10 million; the latter includes not only businesses but also bond and property investments. The Netherlands, however, abolished its foreign investor scheme in April 2024, due to limited take‑up and added value. The US President Donald Trump announced an intention to introduce a Gold Card in February 2025, for investors of more than USD 5 million, to replace the current EB‑5 investor visa. However, aside from a government website to express interest in a “TrumpCard”, no official statement or further details have been given and no steps taken in legislation or regulation,

Compliance measures focussed on labour migrants continue to be introduced

A number of policy shifts have occurred to address concerns over abuse, fraud and exploitation of foreign workers. Australia introduced new criminal offences for coercive work practices, and the ability to ban non-compliant employers from hiring migrant workers. The possibility for victims of exploitation to remain have been expanded. Australia is piloting, from mid‑2024, a six‑to‑12 months visa for such workers to remain. Chain subcontracting and posting continue to be a concern for authorities. This may be true even in higher-skilled schemes: the Netherlands proposed new rules for the Employer of Record arrangements for highly skilled workers placed into other firms, to require the actual firm of employment to also be a recognised sponsor, and limiting maximum placement to two years.

Contract transparency can also help combat abuse. Poland, from 2025, requires employers to submit contracts to authorities prior to start of work. Another measure is to ensure that salaries are not undercut; Latvia in 2025 set required financial means for work permit holders at the average wage within the sector of employment, or the collective agreement wage, whichever is higher.

To ensure that proper admission procedures are used, to prevent skirting entry requirements and unauthorised job-seeking, Finland prohibited in-country first-residence permit applications for visa‑exempt nationals and Schengen visa holders. Some schemes were judged too problematic: Norway eliminated its au pair scheme in 2024 following concern over misuse as low-wage labour.

In Croatia, the rapid increase in labour migration in 2023‑2024 drove some reforms in 2025. Work permit holders may now stay for up to three years, change jobs and work for more than one employer. However, additional requirements were imposed on firms sponsoring foreign workers, including proof of continuing activity and at least one Croatian or EU/EFTA national employee in the previous year. To combat fraudulent sponsorship of foreign workers by recruitment agencies and employers, sponsors now are fined if the worker fails to start work or their contract is terminated within three months.

International students are sought after, but some destinations impose tighter conditions

While most OECD countries continue to have policies to attract international students, the conditions for stay have become more restricted in some countries. In the United Kingdom, in 2024 the right to bring dependents was curtailed for students except for full-time postgraduate students, those on government scholarships, and those studying at doctoral or postgraduate level courses lasting at least 9 months. The White Paper published in May 2025 identified changes in the post-graduation visa for students, reducing it from 24 to 18 months.

Australia increased its English proficiency score requirement for student visas, financial capacity and visa application charges. Canada imposed caps on student admissions. Denmark, in 2025, withdrew work rights, the job-search extension and accompanying family rights from students in non-state approved higher education programmes. Poland increased its verification of prior education and language proficiency, imposing in 2025 a B2‑level proficiency in the language of study and a requirement that universities must report non-attendance, and face a 50% cap on international students. The Slovak Republic introduced rules to forbid holders of study permits from changing residence permit to another status without finishing their studies. Sweden reviewed its policy settings for students and researchers, and proposed measures with stricter academic progression requirements and tighter work restrictions, from 2026, while facilitating the post-graduation stay of doctoral students and international researchers.

Other OECD countries focussed on accelerating and facilitating procedures to make their countries more attractive for international students. Costa Rica introduced, in 2025, higher education institution accreditation with the immigration authorities, to accelerate processing for student and faculty immigration procedures for accredited institutions. Japan introduced a one‑year post-graduation job-search opportunity for tertiary-educated graduates of Japanese language institutes in National Strategic Special Zones. New Zealand extended post-study work visas – valid for up to three years, depending on the qualification obtained, of at least Bachelor level and following a minimum of one year study in New Zealand. Spain increased the maximum weekly working hours for students to 30 hours per week, in 2025.

OECD countries are imposing more stringent asylum policies

A number of countries have curtailed refugee resettlement. The United States suspended its refugee resettlement programme in 2025. Finland also halved its refugee resettlement cap in 2024, to 500. Germany announced its intention to end voluntary admission programmes to the extent possible. Australia, however, maintained its level, while Canada’s Levels Plan saw slight declines from 2024 to 2025 for targets for government-assisted and privately sponsored refugees in the Refugees and Protected Persons.

Other forms of protection have also seen stricter conditions. In the United States, the incoming administration in 2025 ended a categorical parole programme for citizens of Cuba, Haiti, Nicaragua and Venezuela, and announced the withdrawal of temporary protected status for citizens of Nicaragua and Honduras, following the announced end of temporary protected status (TPS) for those from Haiti, Venezuela, Nepal, Cameroon and Afghanistan. Protection for persons who fled Ukraine following the full-scale Russian invasion in 2022 largely continues across the OECD (See Box 2.1).

In the European Union, the EU Pact on Migration and Asylum, adopted by the European Council in 2024, is behind legislative initiatives to adapt national legislation on border management and asylum, before the deadline of May 2026.

A number of countries are attempting to reduce asylum requests. To achieve this, eligibility, procedures and reception are often reviewed. Belgium’s new coalition government in 2025 published a federal coalition agreement with migration objectives through to 2029, which include reduction of asylum requests. Legislative proposals focus on reducing reception, raising the income requirement, and ending public welfare payments to asylum seekers. In December 2024, the Netherlands restricted access to shelter and financial support for asylum seekers with a low likelihood of receiving protection. In Ireland, social welfare payments to beneficiaries of temporary protection in state‑provided accommodation were reduced.

In February 2024, Chile introduced stricter criteria for determining status, excluding “manifestly unfounded applications”, and disqualifying applicants who spent more than 60 days in a third country prior to entry. Ireland published a bill, to take effect in June 2026, setting a 90‑day limit for processing applications from countries where the EU-wide recognition rate is below 20%. In France, the maximum litigation period for asylum claims was reduced from 12 to three months. Finland tightened asylum application conditions in July 2024, allowing the government to limit asylum applications at certain borders. Further, asylum applicants may no longer switch to other permit grounds within Finland. Sweden also closed its track for rejected asylum seekers to transition to work permits in 2025. In the Netherlands, under the proposed Asylum Emergency Measures Act, permanent asylum residency would be replaced by three‑year fixed-term permits subject to review for renewal.

One type of restriction in asylum is limiting family reunification for beneficiaries of protection. Austria suspended this for individuals with protected status, including those granted subsidiary protection or refugee status, in March 2025. Belgium proposes to increase the waiting period for family reunification. Germany also introduced a bill in June 2025 to suspend family reunification for individuals with subsidiary protection status for two years. In December 2024, the Netherlands approved limits to family reunification.

The changing circumstances in Syria also led to specific changes. Many countries paused or suspended the processing of asylum applications. A number of countries have begun offering voluntary return assistance for returns to Syria, including Austria and Sweden. Some countries also suspended asylum application processing for Syrian applicants.

In July 2025, the Greek Parliament approved a measure to suspend, for three months, receipt of asylum applications for persons arriving by boat. In March 2025, the Polish Parliament passed legislation allowing a 60‑day suspension of receipt of asylum applications for individuals entering the country irregularly, particularly from Belarus.

In other OECD countries, access to asylum and conditions for asylum seekers were eased. Costa Rica reformed its asylum regulations in June 2024 to eliminate the deadline for making asylum claims, to extend the same conditions to asylum seekers as to refugees, and to grant work permits to asylum seekers while their application is being processed. In 2024, Germany reduced the waiting period for asylum seekers and tolerated persons in reception centres to access the labour market, from nine to six months. Luxembourg lifted the labour market test requirement for asylum seekers with work rights. Canada introduced family-based humanitarian pathways for foreign nationals who have family in Canada, for situations in Ukraine, the Americas, Sudan and Gaza.

A number of European countries imposed temporary border checks within the Schengen area, in response to concern over movement within the area by irregular border crossers, often intending to seek protection. Austria maintained these in 2024 and 2025. Germany introduced them in September 2024. At the time of writing this report, nine European countries had reported operating internal border checks within the Schengen area.

Box 2.1. Extension of temporary protection statuses for persons fleeing Ukraine

Ukrainians continue to benefit from temporary protection status across the OECD, with some changes. The European Council decision of June 2024 to extend the protection regime for displaced Ukrainians led to EU countries extending protection until 4 March 2026. Countries which apply the Temporary Protection Directive followed suit. Denmark extended special residence permits to 17 March 2027, Switzerland until March 2026, and Iceland until 2 March 2026.

The United States extended Temporary Protected Status for Ukraine until 19 October 2026, with automatic extension of employment authorisation through 19 April 2026. Canada ended applications for its Canada-Ukraine Authorization for Emergency Travel (CUAET) on 31 December 2024, but Ukrainians who arrived before April 2024 still benefit from extended permits.

Conditions have changed in a number of countries. When extending temporary protection, Finland excluded third-country nationals who held temporary permits in Ukraine prior to the conflict. Norway’s collective protection scheme now excludes dual nationals of Ukraine and another safe country, and individuals from regions of Ukraine deemed safe are excluded. Beneficiaries now risk losing protection if they return to Ukraine without a valid reason. Switzerland likewise revised its policy in December 2024 to specify that only Ukrainians fleeing areas occupied or under active attack by Russian forces are eligible for S status.

From 2025, Czechia will offer a new type of long-term permit to Ukrainians with temporary protection, allowing a five‑year stay. In Austria, from October 2024, Ukrainians with temporary protection are eligible to acquire a Red-White‑Red Card Plus for settlement and unrestricted labour market access, if they have worked for at least one year full-time in the preceding two years. Latvia, from December 2024, issues temporary residence permits for three years instead of two.

Return is high priority for many OECD countries

Many OECD countries are increasing the policy priority of achieving returns. Germany’s coalition agreement in April 2025 points at expanding the list of safe countries and increasing the number of returns. In the Netherlands, measures submitted in 2024 are meant to accelerate procedures for nationals of designated “safe countries of origin” and increase the return of rejected asylum seekers. Norway’s Return Strategy 2025 – 2030 aims to streamline both voluntary and forced returns, strengthen reintegration support and engage with origin countries. In January 2025, the Swedish Government adopted a bill that extends the validity period for refusal of entry or expulsion decisions from four to five years. Additionally, the Swedish Migration Agency was granted the authority to issue longer re‑entry bans for individuals who have not left Sweden following an expulsion decision. Switzerland in April 2025 deemed return reasonable for specific categories of Afghan asylum claimants, such as healthy, single adult men, if circumstances are favourable. Frontex, the agency which supports EU countries in returns, implemented organisational changes in 2024 to offer more flexible solutions for return operations. Frontex is also shifting efforts towards handling more voluntary returns.

On the receiving side, Mexico took steps to prepare for possible mass deportations from the United States, by readying temporary shelters in northern border cities and implementing a repatriation strategy for returning Mexicans.

In March 2025, the United States introduced a mobile app (“CBP Home”) to allow persons unlawfully present to voluntarily notify the government of their intent to leave the country, and receive departure and port-of-exit instructions. In January 2025, to assist Mexican nationals at risk of deportation, the government launched a mobile app with a “panic button” for Mexicans in the United States detained by authorities to notify consulates and family members.

Regional and bilateral co‑operation continues

In Latin America and the Caribbean, the Cartagena +40 Process in 2024‑2025 included recognition of climate change and environmental disasters as significant drivers of human mobility, prompting states to expand their protection frameworks to include those displaced by such factors. The Chile Declaration and its accompanying 10‑year Plan of Action (2024‑2034) includes a roadmap for integrating disaster displacement into national asylum and migration systems, promoting complementary pathways such as humanitarian visas and temporary protection mechanisms.

Bilateral agreements continue to shape labour migration pathways across the OECD. For example, Costa Rica and Guatemala signed a joint protocol in May 2025 to regulate labour migration flows and promote fair recruitment practices. Mexico, as part of its Comprehensive Human Mobility Strategy launched in 2024, expanded its social programmes “Youth Building the Future” and “Sowing Life” to countries in the region. The Mexican Government pledged to expand regular labour migration pathways.

Germany signed bilateral migration agreements with Kenya in 2024, and concluded one with Uzbekistan. These agreements cover migration of skilled workers and facilitation of return of irregular migrants. Japan signed a Memorandum of Co‑operation with Tajikistan for its SSW programme in 2024. Austria signed an MOU with Indonesia in 2024, and signed another with Ghana, the latter covering co‑operation in preventing irregular migration, return and readmission, and legal mobility. In a reversal of the trend towards bilateral co‑operation, Israel temporarily suspended its requirements for foreign workers to be recruited exclusively through bilateral agreements, in a number of industries, including construction and agriculture, although recruitment outside of BLAs is subject to a quota. Many OECD countries are implementing BLAs and MOUs previously signed. Italy signed a protocol with Tunisia in 2024 for the entry of 12 000 workers over three years, while Greece took steps to implement its agreement with Egypt, and Austria saw the Philippines Migrant Centre open in Vienna.

Family reunification requirements are subject to adjustment

From 2024, Denmark’s integration requirement for family reunification now allows applicants to demonstrate five years employment with significant Danish-language interaction instead of passing a language test, and the financial requirement was halved, to DKK 57 000 (EUR 7 600). Spain extended family reunification rights to de facto couples and expanded family ties, in 2025. Transposition of the EU Blue Card Directive in European countries in some cases led to more favourable conditions for family of Blue Card holders and lower statutory processing times. This has been the general trend for highly qualified migrants;

In December 2024, Italy increased the general residence requirement to be able to apply for family reunification to two continuous years. Norway increased the income threshold for family reunification. Slovenia introduced, in November 2024, a Slovenian language proficiency requirement for renewals of temporary residence permits for family reunification, at A1 (basic) level.

Attracting back nationals is still a policy goal in some countries

Greece saw the signature of a Memorandum of Co‑operation between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Public Employment Service to engage with the Greek diaspora, informing them about job opportunities in Greece and to create incentives for productive return. Croatia instituted incentives for foreigners of Croatian descent, and their families, to come to Croatia, in 2025. They may now receive a two‑year permit with unrestricted labour market access, and the possibility to start a naturalisation application immediately. Spain adopted new regulations in 2025 to encourage return, including talent attraction targeted at Spanish scientific, technical and research professionals. It also includes a Return Office offering integration services to returning Spaniards.

Digitalisation of migration procedures continues

The ongoing trend in OECD countries is to move procedures to digital platforms (OECD, 2024[2]). This continues at pace in different domains. For example, France implemented new procedures in its ANEF remote service to implement the digitalisation of applications for residence permits, with enhanced support for users. The 2024 reform to Czech legislation digitalises the Foreigners Residence Registry; communication regarding changes of employment of work-permit holders must now be done online. In Estonia, with the extension of Temporary Protected Status for Ukrainians, renewal is required through the self-service portal of the Police and Border Guards. Iceland introduced an online portal for residence permit applications in March 2025. Italy introduced digitalisation of the contract of stay and integration agreement in 2024. Korea introduced a Mobile Residence Card for registered foreign residents, with the same legal validity as the physical card. Some new policies rely on existing e‑Government platforms; for example, Türkiye’s work-permit exemption system was introduced with an online portal for applicants to file applications.

Regularisations related to employment

As many OECD countries step up their efforts to return migrants with an irregular status, the question of how to treat those migrants who lack status but are in employment emerges. Labour migration is, as noted, increasingly focussed on shortage and skilled occupations, but there may be jobs for which no labour migration routes are provided and where employers are hiring migrants with an irregular status, or resorting to such hiring due to inefficiencies in the regular channels. An alternative to deportation of these workers – which may be impractical, costly or politically challenging – is to establish a regularisation mechanism. Regularisation programmes grant status to foreign nationals present in the country without a document allowing stay; these may be asylum seekers whose claim has been rejected, those whose right to stay has elapsed, former students, or those who entered irregularly. There are regularisations for humanitarian reasons, such as those to grant status to undocumented children, or other vulnerable categories. Regularisation programmes are the principal means by which migrants without a regular status acquire one (Hendow and Qaisrani, 2024[3]). Most regularisations are done in relation to the labour market and employment This section reviews a number of recent and ongoing regularisation mechanisms, starting with one‑off regularisations, then continuous regularisation mechanisms, followed by regularisations not for employment. Past experience shows how one‑off regularisations may work in transition periods and as part of broader reform of labour migration channels and the fight against illegal employment of foreigners, while continuous regularisations may be more effective in addressing gaps in the legal labour migration framework in its coverage of certain occupations in demand.

One‑off employment-based regularisations

The first type of regularisation is a one‑off regularisation requiring a job offer or prior experience, limited to specific sectors. Italy, which has had a number of regularisations since the 1990s, held a regularisation during the COVID‑19 pandemic. This two‑track regularisation programme started in May 2020. In the first track, for workers in the agricultural and domestic sectors, employers could apply to conclude an employment contract with a foreign national living on the territory or declare an existing irregular employment relationship. Employers were meant to pay a fee of EUR 500 although some employers made the undocumented worker pay the fee. Applicants were thus dependent on their employers’ willingness to issue a formal contract so that they would be able to apply. In the second track, undocumented people who had recently worked in one of these sectors could themselves apply for a six‑month residence permit to look for new work.

The regularisation measure only concerned agri-food and domestic workers, including domestic care workers. The agri-food sector was suffering from restrictions to international travel linked to the pandemic preventing the arrival of seasonal workers from abroad. Other sectors with a high rate of undeclared employment by undocumented foreigners (e.g. restaurants, tourism, cleaning, and construction), were not eligible; workers needed to prove that they worked in one of the two sectors covered by the regularisation.

An applicant needed to have an employment contract to apply, and the duration of the residence permit issued to successful applicants depended on the length of the job contract. Workers who were issued a permit based on an existing employment relationship (track one) received a residence and work permit linked to the duration of the work contract. They could be issued a residence permit valid for up to a year to look for another job, in any sector if they lost that job. Under track two of the programme, people whose residence permit had recently expired and had work experience in one of the targeted economic sectors could apply for a six‑month residence permit to look for work.

Data for the first year of the scheme show 230 000 applications were made, but far fewer processed, and of those, about one‑fourth of them were refused. In total, about 38 000 residence permits were issued. Most were for track 1. Of the 10 088 temporary job-seeking permits issued under track 2, 6 593 were converted into work permits, indicating a difficulty to find work in the period provided.

In Greece, reform of the Immigration Code in 2023 (Law 5078/2023 – art. 193) introduced an employment-based regularisation scheme. The eligible group had to be residing in Greece prior to 30 November 2023 and have a job offer in agriculture, construction, or tourism. The application was filed by the employer on behalf of the worker, and the application period ran from 9 February to 31 December 2024. The filing fee was EUR 300. The Ministry of Migration and Asylum reported 46 550 applications. By May 2025, 55% of them had been processed; of these, about three in five were approved. Beneficiaries receive a three‑year residence permit allowing employment. The government had previously estimated the undocumented population at about 300 000, although this was not expected to be the pool of persons eligible for the focussed employment-based regularisation.

Canada introduced an Out-Of-Status Construction Workers pilot program. First introduced as a pilot in 2019 and extended from 2020 to 31 December 2024, the programme was designed to facilitate access to permanent resident status for construction workers in the Greater Toronto Area who had fallen out of status and been working without authorisation. The limit was set to 1 000 workers. The scheme allowed workers to apply for permanent residency if they had entered Canada as a temporary resident but currently had no status, lived in Canada for at least 5 years worked a minimum of 4 680 hours in these 5 years (1 full-time job OR 1 or more part-time jobs OR a combination of full-time and part-time work) in the construction sector, had family in Canada. Applicants required a referral letter signed by the Canadian Labour Congress attesting that they appear to meet the conditions for the policy. The fees involved are about CAD 1 200. This sector-based approach, with involvement of the social partners, is unusual.

Rolling regularisations for employment

Another type of regularisation is the continuous employment-based regularisation. There is an example in France, where the continuous regularisation mechanism dates from November 2012 “Valls circular” which enabled the discretionary regularisation of undocumented workers based on their employment. Applicants must have resided continuously in France for at least five years and worked: either eight months over the preceding two years, or 30 months over the preceding five years. In exceptional cases, regularisation was also possible for undocumented people who have lived continuously in France for three years and who had worked for 24 months during that time (continuously or not), including eight months in the prior year. The employer had to complete and sign the request. The decision making process was at the discretion of the prefecture, so undocumented workers who met all requirements could still be refused regularisation. The fee was EUR 425. Waiting times for an appointment at the local prefecture to submit a regularisation application were long – up to two years – and as much as a further year to receive a response.

In January 2024, a reform of French Migration and Asylum law introduced a new approach, and in 2025 the “Retailleu circular” abolished the previous mechanism. The new regularisation regime, currently only valid until December 2026, is focussed on undocumented workers in shortage occupations, again at the discretion of the prefecture. The new regime allows issuance of a Temporary Residence Permit to an undocumented worker who: has resided in France continuously for at least the last three years; has worked in France for at least a year over the past 2 years in a shortage occupation for the geographical area;, is currently employed in a shortage occupation for the geographical area, and is “integrated” into French society and does not have a criminal record. In May 2025, the government released an updated list of 80 shortage occupations (métiers en tension).  As in the past, and until the end of 2026, occupations on the list for all of France include “agricultural employees”, “nurses”, “housekeepers”, “cooks”, “domestic employees”, “market gardeners/horticulturists”, as well as hotel and construction industry employees, among other jobs. Since the application is received by, and processed by, prefectures, the outcome of the regularisation mechanism depends on the prefectural staff and resources devoted to handling these applications.

Another example of ongoing regularisation is Spain’s “rootedness for employment” mechanism. Spain has had a mechanism for regularisation for social or employment reasons since 2005, with later additions of regularisation for family, and later education. Employment regularisation (arraigo laboral) now requires at least six months of employment, demonstrated through different means. In arraigo social, although employment is an eligibility criterion, a residence permit can be issued to applicants who are not in employment, if they can prove social integration, which is determined by the local authority. The number of migrants holding regularisation permits for work or social reasons has declined since 2022.

In May 2025 the Spanish government introduced a new regularisation programme. Described as “transitional, exceptional and time‑limited”, it was expected to grant residence and work permits to some 300 000 migrants who had arrived in Spain before 31 December 2024. The new regulations set out five types of settlement that migrants can use to apply for regularisation: social, socio‑occupational, family, socio-training and “second chance” – a route aimed at people who have held a residence permit in the last two years but, for some reason, have not renewed it. The regulations also reduce the length of time required to stay in Spain in order to qualify for “arraigo” (setting down roots in a given location) from three to two years, make the requirements that must be met more flexible, and allow both employed and self-employed work to be counted from the outset.

Portugal had an “expression of interest” (EOI) mechanism from 2018 to 2024, which allowed migrants in an irregular situation in Portugal to obtain work or self-employment permits. More than half of all new immigrants during the EOI period entered and regularised their status through this mechanism, especially nationals from CPLP countries (Community of Portuguese Language Countries), such as Brazil, Angola, and Guinea-Bissau. Portugal’s 2024 Action Plan for Migration repealed this EOI. Abolishing this was done in conjunction with efforts to improve the process for hiring from abroad. The Portuguese Government signed an agreement with employer confederations and business associations, specifying contractual obligations and the requirement to provide training, language learning and accommodation; the government set a 20‑day processing time for visas.

Germany offers, since 2015, a rolling regularisation for persons in tolerated status to acquire a residence permit which allows them to remain legally in Germany. Employment is one part of this, but not the only part. Temporary suspension of deportation (“Duldung”) covers individuals who cannot return or be deported. It is not a residence permit, but a temporary status which registers presence in Germany, and grants access to benefits at the same conditions as asylum seekers. It does not grant automatic access to work, but tolerated persons may apply for a permit to work, and schemes for vocational training or work offer protection from deportation.

They may be granted a residence permit if they have “become permanently integrated”: i.e. a) financially self-sufficient through work or can be expected to become self-sufficient through work, b) know German (A2 level), c) are committed to the “free democratic order” and have a basic knowledge of the legal and social order and living conditions in Germany, and d) have lived in Germany with a suspension of deportation for six years, or four years if they live with a minor, unmarried child.1 Persons under 27 years of age must have at least three years presence in Germany with Duldung.

To make it easier to qualify for this option, in 2022 Germany introduced an “Opportunity Right of Residency”, available from November 2022. Those with “Duldung” who have been in Germany for at least five years before 31 October 2022 may be issued an 18 month residence permit, granting labour market access. This helps them meet the self-sufficiency, language and proof of identity criteria necessary for regularisation.

One‑off regularisations not based exclusively on employment

Another recent example is the 2022 Irish Regularisation of Long-Term Undocumented Migrants. This time‑limited one‑off (“once in a generation” officially) programme was open between 31 January and 31 July 2022. This scheme was designed to give long-term undocumented people without a current permission to remain in Ireland the chance to regularise their status, access the labour market and begin their path to Irish citizenship. The scheme was only open to those who did not have a current permission to reside. Being in employment was not an eligibility criterion; it was based instead on residence, good character and conduct. A lower residence threshold applied for families with underage children, requiring three years instead of four years of irregular stay. The permitted length of absence from the State was 60 days and the principal applicant needed to be over 18 in order to apply. Undocumented children needed to have a parent or guardian in Ireland who could apply on their behalf. The application fee for undocumented migrants was EUR 700 for a family; EUR 550 for an individual; no fee was required for international protection applicants.

The government was aware that there would be some vulnerable people who would meet the criteria for the scheme but would not be in employment or unable to submit evidence to prove that they had been in employment in Ireland. Even so, employers played an important role in providing proof of residence. Dependence on employers for proof was problematic when employers were reluctant to support applicants, for fear that they would be pursued (prosecuted) for breaching employment laws.

Overall, 6 548 applications on behalf of 8 311 people were received for the scheme. The acceptance rate was about 70%. The lack of an accurate estimate of the undocumented population makes it difficult to establish the take‑up rate, but one estimate, by the Migrant Rights Centre of Ireland, suggests that about half the undocumented population in Ireland applied. The MRCI further noted that 12% of the undocumented migrants who had come forward to enquire about the scheme were ineligible. While not requiring employment, 55% of working age applicants, were in employment and 11% were self-employed. Half were employed in one of three sectors: “hospitality/tourism”, “food and drink” and “cleaning/maintenance”.

Colombia’s 2021 regularisation programme for Venezuelan nationals is an example of a scheme designed to cope with the consequences of a particular sudden inflow, with significant employment impact. It was launched, partly because the government saw that earlier schemes issuing two‑year permits were not working. More than half of the Venezuelans in the country remained undocumented (56% at the end of 2020). The 2021 programme was offered to those in Colombia prior to 31 January 2021 or entering legally from that date to 28 May 2023. The online registration in a central register allowed Venezuelans to receive a temporary residence permit valid for ten years, during which time they can apply for Colombia’s indefinite residence permit – which requires five years of residence. There was no fee for this.

In September 2024, a new decree authorised issuance of special stay permits to Venezuelans who are guardians of minors residing in Colombia; about 540 000 Venezuelans responsible for 270 000 Venezuelan minors with temporary protection are estimated to be eligible. Further, in December 2024, Colombia’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs created a Special Visitor Visa for eligible Venezuelan nationals – those present in Colombia as of 4 December 2024 – to allow them to regularise their status in Colombia and have access to employment, education and healthcare. Colombia also decided to recognise expired Venezuelan passports for the purposes of entry, exit and stay.

Costa Rica offered a regularisation in 2022 aimed primarily at Venezuelans, Nicaraguans and Cubans. The application period was from September to December 2022, for migrants present irregularly prior to March 2022. The regularisation did not require proof of employment. The cost of the application was about USD 100. In addition, in 2024, Costa Rica authorised overstayers to pay a fine and resubmit applications for legal stay.

References

[3] Hendow, M. and A. Qaisrani (2024), Pathways and Policy Evolution: Comparing national laws and policies addressing irregular migrants, MIRREM, https://irregularmigration.eu/pub/MIRREM-Hendow%20and%20Qaisrani-2024-Comparing%20national%20laws%20and%20policies%20addressing%20irregular%20migrants-v1.pdf (accessed on 16 July 2025).

[2] OECD (2024), International Migration Outlook 2024, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/50b0353e-en.

[1] OECD (2022), “Should OECD countries develop new Digital Nomad Visas?”, OECD, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/should-oecd-countries-develop-new-digital-nomad-visas_4d425e15-en.html.

Note

← 1.  These requirements were reduced from eight and six respectively, in 2022.