Gender Differences in Education, Skills and STEM Careers in Latin America and the Caribbean

1. Introduction

Abstract

This introductory chapter explores the critical role gender equality in education plays in fostering broader social and economic development. It highlights that achieving gender equality is not only a matter of social justice but also a catalyst for economic growth and societal well-being. The chapter outlines how educated women positively impact the labour force, income levels, and intergenerational benefits while emphasising the negative consequences of gender disparities on economic opportunities and overall development. The narrative further explores the long-term implications for economic growth, labour market participation, social mobility, and health outcomes, stressing the importance of inclusive strategies that support both girls and boys in education systems. The chapter concludes with an overview of progress and persistent challenges in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), setting the stage for the more detailed analyses presented in subsequent chapters.

Gender equality in education is a cornerstone of broader social and economic development. Achieving gender equality in education is not merely a matter of social justice: it is a catalyst for economic growth and societal well-being. As OECD research shows, educated women are more likely to participate in the labour force, earn higher incomes and contribute to the health and education of their families, thereby fostering intergenerational benefits. Conversely, gender disparities in education can limit economic opportunities and hinder overall development.

Gender disparities in education also have long-term implications for economic growth, labour market participation and social mobility. Research suggests that gender inequality in education limits human capital development and reduces overall productivity (Klasen, 2002). The World Bank estimates that closing gender gaps in education could contribute an additional 1% to annual GDP growth in many LAC countries (World Bank, 2022). Similarly, a simultaneous closing of the gender gaps in labour force participation and working hours may increase potential GDP per capita growth by an additional 0.23 percentage point per year, resulting in a cumulative increase of 9.2% in GDP per capita by 2060 compared to baseline projections (OECD, 2023). There is also evidence that raising women’s labour-force participation rate to that of men in specific countries would, for instance, raise GDP in the United States by 5%, in Japan by 9%, in the United Arab Emirates by 12% and in Egypt by 34% (Aguirre, 2012[1]). Other studies have shown that reducing gender-based discrimination in social institutions could – depending on the chosen scenario – lead to an annual increase in the global GDP growth rate of between 0.03 and 0.6 of a percentage point by 2030 (Ferrant and Kolev, 2016[2]).

Beyond economic considerations, gender gaps in education reinforce traditional gender roles and limit opportunities for women in leadership and decision-making positions. Countries with greater gender equality in education tend to experience improved health outcomes and greater female representation in politics and governance (UNESCO, 2021). Women are also more likely to invest their resources in education and the health of their children, building human capital to fuel future growth (Schultz, 2002). Helping women fully participate in the economy is not only growth-promoting, but it also diversifies economies, reduces income inequality, mitigates demographic shifts and contributes to financial sector stability (Gonzales et al., 2015; Kochhar, Jain-Chandra and Newiak, 2017). Moreover, an analysis of 17 years of data from the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan finds that promoting gender equality is linked to higher levels of subjective well-being and improved quality of life for everyone, not just women (Audette, Lam and O’Connor, 2019[3]).

While much of the global focus rightly remains on improving outcomes for women and girls – who have historically faced systemic barriers to education – it is equally important to recognise and address the growing disengagement of boys in education systems. Girls are more likely to be out of school at the primary level, particularly in lower-income settings, due to structural and cultural barriers.

However, as education levels advance, boys face significant challenges of their own. They are more likely to repeat grades, underperform academically and drop out before completing secondary school (UNESCO, 2022). Factors such as poverty, the pressure to join the labour force early and gendered norms that discourage academic interest among boys contribute to higher dropout rates and lower educational attainment among boys. This underscores the need for inclusive strategies that support all learners.

Given the benefits of gender equality, it is useful to take stock of the progress that has been made and the gender gaps that remain in the educational outcomes of young men and women in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). While LAC countries have made notable progress toward closing gender gaps in education over the past two decades, disparities persist in educational attainment, academic performance, career trajectories and labour market outcomes. Shaped by socio-economic factors, cultural expectations and institutional barriers, these gaps have significant consequences for individual opportunities and broader societal progress.

This report examines patterns in gender disparities in education in the LAC region, drawing on data from key international assessments, including the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), and the OECD’s Education at a Glance (EAG) indicators. It also explores the broader implications of gender inequality in education, considering both economic and social perspectives.

The report is structured as follows: Chapter 2 examines gender disparities in secondary school attainment and early school leaving across Latin America and the Caribbean, identifying regional patterns and differences among countries. Chapter 3 analyses gender gaps in academic performance in upper secondary education, focusing on key subjects such as mathematics, science and reading, using PISA data from LAC countries. Chapter 4 investigates gendered career choices, particularly in STEM fields, and their implications for skills development and employment opportunities in LAC labour markets. Chapter 5 assesses gender differences in skills acquisition among youth and adults, drawing on PIAAC data to examine how these disparities influence labour market participation, wages and broader employment outcomes in the region. Finally, Chapter 6 presents key policy recommendations to address gender gaps in education, skills and the workforce, with a focus on promoting gender equity in STEM fields across Latin America.

Gender disparities in educational attainment and early school leaving

In many LAC countries, girls now outperform boys in educational participation and attainment – a reversal of historical trends. Over the past two decades, female enrolment and completion rates at both secondary and tertiary levels have surpassed those of males, with women more likely to complete upper secondary education and pursue tertiary studies in several countries in the LAC region (UNESCO, 2020; OECD, 2023).

For example, in Argentina, Brazil and Chile, women’s tertiary enrolment rates exceed those of men by nearly 20 percentage points (OECD, 2022). Despite these gains for girls and women, early school leaving remains a pressing challenge among boys, particularly for those from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds. Family expectations to contribute to household income and disengagement from formal education contribute to higher dropout rates among boys, with an average dropout rate of 20% compared to 15% for girls in the region (UNESCO, 2022).

Gender gaps in educational performance in LAC

Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) face a significant challenge in ensuring that all students acquire foundational learning skills. Recent data from PISA highlight this. The OECD Programme for International Student Assessment that measures 15-year-old students’ performance in reading, mathematics, and science literacy shows that 75% of 15-year-olds in the region fall below basic proficiency in mathematics (Level 2) and 55% are below proficiency in reading. Learning outcomes are especially poor among the most disadvantaged: 88% of the most vulnerable students performed below proficiency in mathematics compared to 55% among the wealthiest (Saavedra and Regalia, 2023). While girls are making notable progress in completing upper secondary education, gender disparities in learning outcomes persist across key subject areas.

PISA assessments over the years have consistently shown that girls outperform boys in reading while boys tend to perform better, on average, in mathematics, though not in all countries. In PISA 2022, this still holds true, with countries in the LAC region reporting some of the widest gender gaps in mathematics scores globally. In Chile, Peru and Costa Rica, boys outperformed girls by 16 points, 15 points and 15 points, respectively, making them part of the seven countries with the widest gender gap in mathematics performance in favour of boys along with Italy, Austria, Albania and Jordan (OECD, 2023). Cultural expectations and girls’ lower self-confidence in mathematical ability may contribute to these differences despite evidence that when given equal encouragement and support girls perform just as well as boys (González de San Román and de la Rica, 2012[4]).These disparities highlight structural barriers and societal norms that influence self-perceptions of academic ability and career choices.

In line with global trends, girls performed better than boys in reading in almost all countries in the LAC region. Costa Rica and Chile are the only countries where there was no difference between boys’ and girls’ performance, and in no country in the region did boys outperform girls. Dominican Republic and Jamaica are the countries in the region with the largest gender gaps in reading, exceeding 25 percentage points in favour of girls. The gender differences in science are the most varied. In Mexico, Costa Rica, Peru, Guatemala, Chile and Argentina, boys outperformed girls while in the Dominican Republic and Jamaica, girls performed significantly better. The remaining six participating countries show no significant gender differences.

This points to the need for targeted strategies that address the overall learning crisis and the gendered dimensions of academic performance.

Factors influencing career choices and gendered pathways in education

Although women’s access to higher education has improved overall, this has not translated into equitable conditions across all career paths. Structural gender inequalities – prevalent worldwide – continue to manifest in various forms: occupational segregation, underrepresentation of women in high-productivity and economy-driving sectors such as science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), persistent wage gaps and lower overall participation in the labour market. In this context, the unequal burden of unpaid care work constitutes a critical structural challenge that prevents women’s full participation and impedes progress towards their economic autonomy.

The underrepresentation of women in STEM fields, in particular, has been widely documented. While the absolute number of women in these disciplines has increased, their relative participation and opportunities for advancement in comparison to men continue to remain disproportionately low, particularly in engineering, and information and communication technologies (ICTs). This stems from a complex interplay of factors rather than a single root cause.

One key explanation is self-selection bias, where socialisation processes and gender stereotypes influence girls’ decisions not to pursue STEM education. Reinforcing the notion that STEM careers are predominantly male, these stereotypes are internalised early in life, shaping girls’ interest, confidence and performance in these subjects. Additionally, research suggests that women often struggle to identify with STEM fields as self-efficacy and motivation are shaped by gender norms, the perception of societal beliefs and a lack of role models and support systems (Blackburn, 2017).

Beyond individual motivation, social context plays a crucial role. Factors such as parental education, socio-economic status, traditional parental expectations, peer influence and media representation affect girls' interest and self-perception in STEM. In schools, teachers' skills, pedagogical approaches and gendered expectations can further impact girls' participation and progression in STEM subjects (UNESCO, 2019). Teachers’ perceptions of students' abilities based on gender may create unequal classroom environments, discouraging girls from pursuing STEM studies.

Another major barrier is the burden of unpaid domestic and care work, which disproportionately affects female students, particularly those from low-income backgrounds. This responsibility hinders their educational and career pathways, limiting their time for learning, acquiring digital skills or participating in extracurricular learning. These responsibilities become particularly acute during adolescence, a period when gender norms often become more rigid and discriminatory practices more entrenched (Vaca-Trigo & Valenzuela, 2022). The COVID-19 pandemic further exposed and exacerbated these inequalities. Prolonged school closures affected over 160 million young people in Latin America in 2020, disrupting learning and educational continuity (ECLAC/UNESCO, 2020; ECLAC, 2021). Household surveys and other data from 11 Latin American countries compiled by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) – representing 83% of the student population aged 6 to 23 in the region – indicate that study hours significantly declined during the pandemic, reducing learning outcomes and increasing dropout risks. For female students, the pandemic increased the burden of unpaid care work, which, in turn, affected their ability to engage in learning (Acevedo et al., 2021[5]). This aggravated an already disparate situation: before the pandemic, girls in Bolivia, Guatemala and Nicaragua spent between three and four hours daily on care work while boys spent less than 2.8 hours. In Ecuador, girls spent 3.8 more hours per week than boys on household chores (ECLAC/UNICEF, 2016; ECLAC et al., 2020). The pandemic deepened pre-existing gender disparities, reinforcing barriers to educational and professional advancement for them.

The COVID-19 crisis serves as a powerful reminder that women are often disproportionately affected during periods of economic or social disruption. This highlights the fragility of existing gains and the need to strengthen systems that bolster women’s resilience in education and career advancement.

Gender gaps in skills development and labour market outcomes in LAC

The disadvantages girls face in education do not end with schooling. They compound over time and shape skills development into adulthood. These early gaps are evident in persistent gender disparities in adult competencies, with women often scoring lower in areas such as numeracy and problem solving in digital contexts. In this way, inequalities rooted in the school years lay the groundwork for broader, long-term skill gaps. Data from the OECD’s Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), a survey that assesses the skills of 16–65-year-old adults in participating countries, reveals significant differences between men and women in foundational skills such as literacy, numeracy, problem solving in technology-rich environments and job-related competencies that influence labour market outcomes. The first cycle of the PIAAC survey was conducted over three rounds in different years between 2011 and 2017. Four Latin American countries took part in the PIAAC survey: Chile, Ecuador, Mexico and Peru. Chile participated in the second round (2014–2015) while Ecuador, Mexico and Peru joined in the third round (2017).

In these Latin American countries participating in PIAAC, gender disparities in literacy tend to be smaller than those observed in numeracy, reflecting global trends. There is little difference between men and women in reading proficiency, with 59.3% of men and 60.1% of women scoring below Level 2. This pattern is consistent with OECD averages, where 17.6% of men and 17.7% of women fall below Level 2. However, overall literacy levels in the region remain well below the OECD average (OECD, 2023). In numeracy, much smaller proportions of the adult population in the LAC participating countries performed at Level 3 or above compared to the OECD average, with only 4-12% of adults in Latin America reaching this level versus 42% in the OECD. The gender gap in numeracy also exceeds the OECD average of 11 score points, reaching 16 points in Peru and 21 points in Chile. These gaps are particularly wide among older adults where differences in educational attainment and occupational choices have particularly long-term consequences for skills development and retention. Among adults aged 25 and over, men perform significantly better than women in numeracy, with the gap rising to 19 points in Peru and 24 points in Chile – the highest among PIAAC-participating countries. In contrast, among younger adults (aged 24 and under), these gaps shrink to 5 and 8 points, respectively, falling below the OECD average. One explanation for this is that young women participate in education and skills development at a far higher rate than their older peers did at similar ages. As women’s educational attainment has caught up with men’s, skill disparities have narrowed among younger generations (OECD, 2019). This suggests that gender differences in skills development may continue to lessen over time, reflecting the broader progress in women's educational attainment and participation.

Beyond literacy and numeracy, gender gaps in problem-solving skills are less pronounced though men tend to have a slight advantage. On average, across OECD countries, 32% of men scored at Level 2 or 3 in problem solving in digital environments compared to 28% of women. In Ecuador and Peru, 6% and 7% of men, respectively, reached these levels compared to 4% and 6% of women (OECD, 2019). The gap is wider in Mexico (13% of men versus 8% of women) and Chile (17% of men versus 12% of women). A larger share of women also reported having no computer experience or failing the information and communication technologies (ICT) core test compared to men. In Ecuador, 35% of women fall into this category compared to 31% of men. In Peru, the figures rise to 47% of women compared to 41% of men (OECD, 2019).

These disparities in cognitive and technological skills contribute to broader labour market inequalities. Women in Latin America and the Caribbean remain overrepresented in lower-paying sectors such as education, healthcare and informal employment while men dominate higher-paying fields like engineering and information technology. Occupational data highlight stark gender imbalances: 70.2% of science and engineering professionals are men whereas 71.4% of health professionals and 62.5% of teaching professionals are women (OECD, 2023). Gender gaps in employer-sponsored training and lifelong learning further reinforce these inequalities, limiting women’s career advancement opportunities. Addressing these skill disparities through targeted education, training and workforce development programmes is essential to fostering women’s economic inclusion and creating more equitable labour markets across the region.

Conclusion

Latin America and the Caribbean has made substantial progress in closing gender gaps in school enrolment and basic reading proficiency. In fact, data from the PISA assessment show girls performing at par with or much better than boys in reading performance though in most LAC countries the advantage of girls in reading is much less than in OECD countries. Data from PISA serve to disentangle some of the factors that may be associated with girls’ better performance, including enjoyment of studying and reading. However, despite progress in narrowing gender disparities in educational attainment and reading performance, gaps remain in mathematics and science achievement, career choices, adult skills development and subsequent labour market outcomes.

Girls’ relative skills advantage at age 15 and their self-reported high expectations about their education and labour market aspirations are not reflected in labour market outcomes. Although data from the OECD’s PIAAC survey show that an equally large proportion of adult men and women are not able to meet basic literacy skill standards, women fare relatively worse in the labour market, particularly in earnings, in nearly all countries and at all levels. Young women undergo an educational and occupational sorting process that steers them toward lower-paying sectors and occupations. This is driven by a complex interplay of economic, social, cultural and informational factors, which hinder their ability to fulfil their professional aspirations.

Addressing these challenges requires targeted programmes to support young women in making educational choices and transitioning into the workforce, especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds. While sustaining progress in girls’ and young women’s skills is essential, it alone is not enough to improve labour market outcomes. A multi-pronged approach is needed, integrating gender-sensitive curricula, expanding women's participation in STEM and addressing socio-economic barriers that hinder educational and employment opportunities for girls and women. By ensuring equitable access to quality education and careers, and fostering inclusive labour markets, governments can harness gender equality as a driver of economic growth, social mobility and long-term development in the region.

References

[5] Acevedo, I. et al. (2021), “Informality in the time of COVID-19 in Latin America: Implications and policy options”, PLoS ONE, Vol. 16/12, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261277.

[1] Aguirre, D. (2012), Empowering the third billion: Women and the world of work in 2012, Booz & Company.

[3] Audette, L., J. Lam and S. O’Connor (2019), “Gender equality and subjective well-being: Evidence from 17 years of panel data”, Journal of Happiness Studies, Vol. 20/3.

[2] Ferrant, G. and A. Kolev (2016), The economic cost of gender-based discrimination in social institutions.

[4] González de San Román, A. and S. de la Rica (2012), Gender gaps in PISA test scores: The impact of social norms and the mother’s transmission of role attitudes, IZA Discussion Paper, https://www.iza.org/en/publications/dp/6338.