Expanding access to satellite Earth observation data: What it means for privacy, security and trust

A growing share of the Earth can be captured from satellites in near-real-time and in ever-greater detail. In 2024, the US Geological Survey identified some 472 earth observation satellites in orbit, 202 operated by governments and 270 by private operators. From an altitude of several hundred kilometres, observations can be made through cloud cover and in darkness and be repeated over the same spot several times a day. What was once the domain of governments and the subject of spy thrillers is now available to almost anyone, as some commercial satellites can be tasked for a fee from the comfort of your home. 

And the quality and availability of this imagery is quickly improving. In 2023, a US company released the highest-resolution commercial synthetic aperture radar image ever made, capturing the Earth’s surface in stunning 16-cm detail. In March 2025, a 10-cm commercial sensor was launched into orbit. This trend is likely to continue, as advances in miniaturisation, convergence with other technologies (optics, photonics) and reduced launch costs are making it cheaper to send highly sophisticated sensors into space, and more countries and operators are producing earth observation data. Public and private data providers complement each other, with several government programmes providing free and open data, while commercial satellites often serve niche markets.

Earth observation satellites not only produce optical and radar imagery but also capture other electromagnetic emissions such as radio waves. A recent commercial offering is space-based radio frequency (RF) monitoring. Satellites can detect RF signals, such as those emitted by maritime radars, emergency beacons or even handheld radios if the signal is strong enough. In combination with other data sources and signal analysis, RF monitoring can locate or even identify the emitter.

In this context of growing data availability, artificial intelligence (AI) has revolutionised satellite imagery analysis through automated image classification, change detection and predictive modelling. Satellite observations can help to more easily track land use and changes, advance ocean, weather and climate science, and support a wide range of operational activities for both public and commercial users. For example: 

• The Global Agriculture Monitoring initiative combines earth observation data, weather information and AI-trained models to predict where, when and what crops are growing worldwide, in support of market transparency and early warning of production shortfalls.  
  
• The Global Human Settlement Layer relies on a combination of machine learning, satellite imagery, census data and private sector data to estimate global built-up surface and population. This and similar maps are crucial in areas with infrequent or poor-quality census data collection and are for instance used by the United Nations World Food Programme to inform needs assessment. 
  
• The Methane Alert and Response System initiative uses AI and hyperspectral satellite imagery to automatically flag potential emissions at monitored locations.  

The emergence of foundation models based on earth observation data may further encourage the use of satellite imagery data, as they reduce the need for advanced technical expertise and access to training datasets, while also strengthening analytical capability. A NASA and IBM-led partnership has created the Prithvi models for earth observation and weather and climate, proposing applications for carbon flux estimation, landslide detection, burn intensity estimation, crop pattern identification, flood mapping, and more. 

What was previously exclusively in the toolboxes of governments can now be accessed by others, including the media and non-governmental groups. Long-running public earth observation programmes provide access to crucial data that allow scientists and commercial analysts to track changes in land and ocean use over time, which further feed into commercial value-adding activities. Journalists now use routinely available satellite imagery in their news stories. For commercial high-resolution data that complement public data time series, many satellite operators have partnership programmes with media organisations. Satellite imagery plays a growing role in the media coverage of armed conflicts, assessing damage on the ground.

Satellite data are also increasingly used by environmental conservation groups. The Monitoring of the Andes Amazon Program uses a combination of free and commercial satellite imagery, in addition to drones and radar, to pinpoint the most urgent deforestation cases across the entire Amazon basin. The Global Fishing Watch offers freely available resources such as maps and vessel information to analyse human activities at sea, based on different types of satellite data.  

And finally, satellite imagery can be used to defend human rights, for example by recognising mass graves, detecting unlawful exploitation of indigenous land or monitoring humanitarian crises, including movements of refugees.

However, one of the key characteristics of earth observation is its dual use nature: the same satellites used to track illegal fishing can often also detect military troop movements. 

In February 2022, the US company Maxar released satellite imagery showing Russian troop build-ups along Ukraine’s borders. Since then, commercial high-resolution and radar images have been used to track military activity and document destruction on the ground almost in real time. The same year, the US National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency reported using data from more than 200 commercial satellites and some 100 different companies, leading to an “unprecedented” use of commercial geospatial intelligence.  

When such imagery and data are traded in the open market, there is less control over how, and by whom, it is used. More widespread and intensive use of earth observation data and the technological convergence with artificial intelligence therefore raise new concerns about national security, privacy and the ethical use of these data: 

• National security: Increased availability of higher-resolution data creates security challenges linked to the malicious exploitation of information on military troop movements, physical infrastructures, forest fires, and more. From a military perspective, AI-enhanced space-based imagery and signal intelligence may move us a step closer to the hypothetical future of “GEOINT (geospatial intelligence) singularity”, where full information would be available on all physical terrestrial activity in real time.
  
• Data privacy and ethical use of data: Higher-resolution satellite imagery can infringe upon individual privacy and freedoms by enabling tracking of an individual’s movements and schedule, and by mapping fenced-off areas such as backyards. It may be possible to recognise individuals if assisted by context and other data sources. However, the main issue is likely not individual data privacy, as other tracking technologies are generally less expensive, but rather broader-scale phenomena. For example, satellite data can reveal sensitive information about collective groups, such as vulnerable populations and refugee camps. Furthermore, asymmetric access to information on physical environmental characteristics (e.g. water levels) could create unfair economic advantages in land transactions. There is therefore a need for reflection on the ethical use of earth observation data, related to data collection, sharing and ownership.
  
• Need to build trust in satellite imagery and AI predictions: Large-scale commercial uptake of earth observation data beyond expert user communities such as government agencies, scientists and selected users (e.g. precision agriculture) has so far proven difficult due to significant investment costs and uncertain commercial returns, the need to process and calibrate earth observation data against other datasets, and lacking or poor-quality reference datasets (e.g. economic surveys in low-income countries) for satellite-based model validation. The introduction of AI models could in some cases deepen rather than alleviate distrust in these technologies. There seems to be widespread use in the earth observation field of AI methods that are not explainable. Efforts to use interpretable models, such as those employed by the EU Joint Research Centre to develop the Global Human Settlement Layer, are therefore particularly important.
  
• Growing risk of fake or incorrectly used satellite imagery: As part of the growing trend of digital disinformation, the trust in satellite data can be eroded by fake, misinterpreted or intentionally misrepresented imagery. For example, in 2025 there were several examples of deepfake satellite imagery used to exaggerate the effect of military strikes in ongoing conflicts. At a more fundamental level, the integrity of the satellite imagery supply chain is vulnerable to malicious tampering. Several earth observation satellites critical for both national and global disaster management send unauthenticated or decryptable signals, making images susceptible to spoofing attacks for “malicious misdirection”. 

Governments can take steps to help maximise the positive impacts of these converging technologies while minimising potential risks:

So far, only a small number of OECD countries have explicit earth observation data regulation in place. In 2024, they included Canada, France, Germany, Japan and the United States. These frameworks regulate the conditions for reporting and/or disseminating private sector data for national security purposes, typically addressing technical characteristics such as temporal, spatial and spectral resolution or frequency domains. In Japan, for instance, there are licensing thresholds linked to “distinguishing accuracy of target”, such as vehicles and ships; for optical sensors this accuracy should not exceed two meters. A broader approach is taken by Korea, which imposes strict security regulations on geographic data through the Geospatial Information Management Act, including bans on exports of government map data.

Considering the growing international competition in earth observation data, the United States introduced a new tiered licensing approach for private earth observation systems in 2020, linking regulatory stringency to the existence and technological capabilities of foreign competition. This pragmatic move, where the risk burden is transferred to the US government, represents a paradigm shift by focusing less on technological specifications and more on international comparisons.

In the space sector, interdisciplinary innovation spaces and advanced data platforms are central to the technological convergence driving modern earth observation. Innovation hubs such as the European Space Agency’s Φ-lab and the US Jet Propulsion Laboratory foster collaboration between earth observation specialists, AI researchers, optics, robotics and quantum experts from industry, generating new space systems and applications that could not emerge in isolation. This convergence is strengthened by collaborative platforms focused on data analytics and sharing, such as the European Union’s Destination Earth, NASA’s Earth System Observatory, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Open Data Dissemination programme and Digital Earth in Australia.

The OECD Framework for Anticipatory Governance of Emerging Technologies recommends the use of horizon scanning, foresight and technology assessments to anticipate future challenges while also developing adaptive regulatory systems that embed policy experimentation such as policy innovation labs and regulatory sandboxes. In the space sector, the US executive order of 18 December 2025 highlights the objective to use emerging technologies and scientific discoveries to advance government mission capabilities.

Earth observation is increasingly included in both national and international foresight exercises – especially how it intersects with machine learning and quantum technologies for improved sensing and data processing. For example, the United Kingdom has looked at the implications of emerging technologies for UK space regulatory policy. Future opportunities and risks of space technologies, including earth observation, are also addressed by the European Space Agency and the European Union. 

The earth observation sector has been transformed over the last 15 years, and more rapid change is expected in the coming decade bringing both opportunities and risks, as the forthcoming OECD report The Space Economy at a Glance will detail. The OECD encourages governments to promote innovation and trade in satellite data products and services, while ensuring appropriate protection of national interests, including individual and collective fundamental freedoms. 

The OECD Space Forum  is a unique platform that brings together stakeholders from the global space community to exchange on economic issues concerning space activities. Its original work contributes to improving measurement of the space economy and its broader impacts.