This chapter provides a detailed mapping of the governance of the Swedish skills system and the skills data infrastructure.
Strengthening the Governance of the Swedish Skills System
Final Report
Abstract
The governance1 of skills systems2 is inherently complex, involving of an array of actors in the provision, financing and day-to-day administration of skills policies. These actors range from government ministries and agencies to non-governmental stakeholders. Ministries and agencies implicated include those with responsibility for education, labour markets, migration, innovation and industry (OECD, 2020[1]).
As with other countries, comprehending the functioning of the Swedish skills system involves examining the roles, responsibilities and policies of various ministries, governmental agencies and levels of government. It also requires understanding the governance structures established to facilitate co‑ordination and collaboration among these stakeholders. These structures vary in formality, with some mandated by the government and others established autonomously by the actors as needs arise.
This section provides a comprehensive mapping of the governance of Sweden’s skills system. It begins with an overview of the Swedish skills system, followed by an outline of the key roles and responsibilities of different actors in skills policy, both within and outside government. It then outlines the existing governance structures aimed at fostering collaboration across government entities and engaging with stakeholders in the design and implementation of skills policies.
Overview of the Swedish skills system
The Swedish skills system is comprehensive and diverse, encompassing a broad spectrum of educational and training opportunities. It includes both initial education for children and young adults, as well as extensive options for higher education. There are also various forms of adult education and training available. These educational pathways are provided by an array of public and independent institutions, ensuring accessibility and flexibility across the education sector.
Children can start preschool (förskola) from the age of 1, and from age 3 all children are offered preschool for at least 525 hours per year. Preschool is heavily subsidised, with 15 hours per week free of charge. Compulsory education begins with reception class (förskoleklass) at age 6 followed by compulsory school (grundskola) from ages 7 to 15. Municipalities organise after-school activities, known as school-age educare (fritidshem), up to sixth grade, with its own curriculum.
Students are in upper secondary school (gymnasieskola) from ages 16 to 19 (Eurydice, 2023[2]; Eurydice, 2024[3]). There are 18 national programmes, 12 vocational programmes and 6 preparatory programmes for higher education. All programmes in the upper secondary school are three years in duration leading to an EQF (European Qualifications Framework) level 4 diploma (Skolverket, 2011[4]). Upper secondary VET is financed by municipalities and delivered by private and public education providers that are approved by the Swedish Schools Inspectorate (Skolinspektionen) (Cedefop, 2021[5]). Private entities that run independent upper secondary schools may also be approved as organisers of upper secondary VET.
For those who have not completed compulsory or upper secondary education, or who need to complete grades for eligibility to higher education, municipal adult education (kommunal vuxenutbildning, komvux) or folk high schools (folkhögskola) are available. Municipal adult education is part of the formal adult education system and provides education for adults at compulsory and upper secondary levels, with a priority for individuals with lower levels of education. Municipal adult education also includes upper secondary vocational adult education (yrkesvux), which provides opportunities for individuals to retrain for new professions or further develop their skills within their current profession. It also comprises adult education for persons with intellectual disabilities (komvux som anpassad utbildning) and for newly arrived immigrants (Svenska för invandrare, sfi) (Eurydice, 2024[3]; Eurydice, 2023[2]). Sweden’s civil society, including non-profit associations and organisations, is active in supporting newly arrived migrants with improving their Swedish language skills and provides networking opportunities to increase their chances of being hired.
Folk high schools, together with nine study associations (studieförbund) and private providers (Cedefop, 2021[5]), provide liberal adult education (folkbildning), which is part of non-formal adult education in Sweden and not tied to academic qualifications.
Folk high schools form part of Sweden’s civil society and are independent adult education institutions, which offer courses across a range of fields such as arts, crafts, music, theatre, social sciences and vocational training. They provide graduates with basic eligibility3 to higher education and give priority to applicants with no or little previous education. Folk high schools offer general and specialised courses. All folk high schools are required to offer general courses designed for students who have not completed high school or compulsory school education. They also offer specialised courses that provide students with opportunities to explore studies of interest. Since 2010, folk high schools have also offered motivational study courses targeting jobseekers who neither have a high school diploma nor basic eligibility for higher education. Folk highs schools attract a relatively large number of students with disabilities and employ flexible study methods to accommodate their needs.
Study associations, the other key provider of liberal adult education, offer three types of courses: study circles, cultural events and “other folkbildning”, which are open to everyone and are entirely voluntary. The Swedish National Council of Adult Education (Folkbildningsrådet), a non-governmental organisation (NGO), is responsible for distributing government grants to folk high schools and study associations.
Higher education is available to those who have completed upper secondary school through higher education institutions including universities (universitet) and university colleges (högskola). Universities have the authority to award degrees at bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral levels, whereas university colleges may have limited or no right to award doctoral degrees (Eurydice, 2024[3]). Sweden has both public and independent higher education institutions.
Higher education institutions in Sweden enjoy significant autonomy within the framework of national legislation. They independently decide on aspects such as the content of study programmes, most admission criteria for students and areas of research focus. However, they must also be responsive to student demand and the requirements of the labour market. Universities collaborate in the development of specific programmes.
The Swedish higher education system is relatively flexible, with many higher education institutions offering distance education options that allow students to complete their studies entirely online. These institutions also play a crucial role in lifelong learning by providing courses designed for continuous professional development or personal enrichment that may not necessarily lead to formal higher education qualifications.
Higher vocational education (HVE) was introduced into the Swedish education system in 2009. HVE is provided as programmes, leading to qualifications at EQF levels 5 and 6, and shorter courses up to six months aimed at meeting labour market needs. HVE programmes shall correspond to a real labour market need and are delivered in close co‑operation with employers and industry, meaning that the range of programmes and specialisations changes over time, with new programmes starting and old ones discontinued as the labour market evolves. The majority of HVE programmes are delivered by municipalities and private education providers but a limited number of higher education institutions also offer higher vocational education. The HVE-scheme is also being piloted at EQF level 4.
Labour market training (arbetsmarknadsutbildning) is overseen by the Swedish Public Employment Service (Arbetsförmedlingen) and is intended primarily for unemployed individuals in need of re/upskilling. Arbetsförmedlingen focuses on providing training to those who are far from the labour market and who, for example, have been unemployed for a prolonged period of time. Arbetsförmedlingen receives government funding for the training programmes, which are then procured from external suppliers (Eurydice, 2023[2]). Arbetsförmedlingen is also responsible for developing and implementing individual integration plans for immigrants. Further support with labour market integration for individuals far from the labour market is provided by social enterprises.
Labour migration policies are overseen by the Ministry of Justice and implemented by the Swedish Migration Agency (Migrationsverket) (see more below). Under the new migration policy, the government intends to make the conditions for low-skilled labour immigration stricter and improve conditions for the immigration of high-skilled workers (Government of Sweden, 2023[6]).
Roles and responsibilities in the Swedish skills system
Ministries and governmental agencies
Sweden has a decentralised skills system, with ministries solely responsible for policy making and governmental agencies and sub-national governments (regions and municipalities) responsible for implementation and delivery.
Several ministries in Sweden are tasked with developing policies across various sub-fields of skills policy, such as education and active labour market initiatives. These ministries include the Ministry of Education and Research, Ministry of Employment, Ministry of Climate and Enterprise, Ministry of Finance, and the Ministry of Justice. Each ministry oversees several governmental agencies that each play a specific role in implementing policies within their respective domains. Table 2.1 details which agencies come under the purview of each ministry.
Source: Compilation by the OECD based on publicly available information and information shared by Sweden.
In Sweden, agencies are responsible for implementing the laws passed by the Riksdag (Swedish parliament), as well as ordinances with directives and various decisions of the government. The core mandates of agencies are described in ordinances with directives (förordning med instruktion) decided by the government. Each agency operates under a common ordinance (myndighetsförordningen) that is applicable to all agencies, in addition to specific ordinances tailored to their functions. The government issues annual appropriation directives (regleringsbrev) that define each agency's budget and outline priority activities for the upcoming year. Agencies may also receive government tasks (regeringsuppdrag) outside of annual appropriation directives (Government of Sweden, 2024[7]).
Although the government appoints agency management and decides on their funding, agencies enjoy organisational independence. This independence means that while agencies are accountable to the government and ministries, for example agencies and most public higher education institutions4 submit annual reports to the government and meet with relevant ministers in annual “agency dialogues” (Government of Sweden, 2024[7]), they have the autonomy to decide how to fulfil their mandates within the parameters set by ordinances with directives. In Sweden's governance model, agencies operate under collective government decisions, preventing any single ministry from unilaterally dictating agency actions or intervening in their daily operations (Government of Sweden, 2024[7]). Table 2.2 lists the key agencies involved in skills policy and their respective roles and responsibilities.
Source: Compilation by the OECD based on publicly available information and information shared by Sweden.
The 2022 government task, which mandates agencies to collaborate to ensure an effective supply of skills (as mentioned above), is one of several tasks related to skills assigned to multiple agencies. For example, in 2021 the government tasked Arbetsförmedlingen, Swedish National Agency for Education (Skolverket), the Swedish National Agency for Higher Vocational Education (Myndigheten för yrkeshögskolan, MYH), the Swedish Research Council (Vetenskapsrådet), Swedish Council for Higher Education (Universitets- och högskolerådet, UHR), Statistics Sweden (Statistiska Centralbyrån, SCB), the Agency for Digital Government (Myndigheten för digital förvaltning, Digg) and the Swedish Agency for Innovation Systems (Verket för Innovationssystem, Vinnova) to develop a coherent data infrastructure for skills supply and lifelong learning (Government of Sweden, 2021[8]).
Other tasks assigned by the government are handled by individual agencies but require co‑operation and co‑ordination. For instance, in the summer of 2023, the Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth (Tillväxtverket) was tasked with co‑ordinating work at the national level to support new industrialisation and societal transformation in Norrbotten and Västerbotten counties (Government of Sweden, 2023[9]). This includes supporting the counties to meet changing skills demand. Tillväxtverket collaborates closely with Arbetsförmedlingen, among others, to implement this task. Table 2.3 details the key governmental tasks on skills policies and the responsible agencies.
Agencies in Sweden also engage in self-initiated collaborations. One notable example is the network on career guidance, in which agencies and universities participate jointly (see more on governance structures in the Swedish skills system below).
Note: *In 2024, co-operating with the aim of contributing to a well-functioning skills supply was only mentioned in MYH’s annual appropriation directive. However, the appropriation directive does mention the other listed agencies and requires the issuance of a joint report outlining the outcomes of the co‑operation. In 2022, co-operating with the aim of contributing to a well-functioning skills supply was integrated into the ordinances with directives of the listed agencies, with the exception of Tillväxtverket, in the case of which such specifications were mentioned in its annual appropriation directive.
Source: Compilation by the OECD based on publicly available information and information shared by Sweden.
Regions and municipalities
Sweden is divided into 21 regions and 290 municipalities (SKR, 2023[10]), each possessing significant autonomy and independent powers of taxation (known as the local self-government model). Regions and municipalities wield substantial competencies and decision-making prerogatives across various policy domains, including skills policy.
Regions have the option to offer specific types of upper secondary education, including adult education, on a voluntary basis. They are also often involved in the provision of liberal adult education and manage around one-third of folk high schools, funded by the government. As noted earlier, Folkbildningsrådet, an NGO, administers government grants to folk high schools and study associations. Given their extensive responsibilities for health policies, the regions play a special role in education programmes for nurses and medical doctors, including providing input on future demand for skills and, as an employer, paying for training leave and internships.
Since 2010, Swedish regions have been legally mandated to foster collaboration and alignment between regional skills supply and demand under the Swedish Act on Regional Development Responsibility (Lagen om regionalt utvecklingsansvar). This statutory responsibility was further strengthened in 2022 through an amendment aimed at enhancing the connection between regional development and skills initiatives. The amended act now requires regions to set goals and priorities for regional skills supply and demand, and to assess the demand for skills in both public and private sectors over the short and long term (Swedish Parliament, 2022[11]).
Complementing the legislative framework, regional responsibilities for aligning skills supply and demand are further described in the National Strategy for Sustainable Regional Development 2021-2030 (Nationell strategi för hållbar regional utveckling i hela landet 2021–2030) (Government of Sweden, 2021[12]). Originally adopted by the preceding government and retained by the current administration, this strategy envisages a pivotal role for Sweden's 21 regions in analysing and forecasting regional skills demand. It emphasises leveraging these insights to strengthen the alignment between skills supply and demand, facilitating dialogue among stakeholders such as municipalities, educational institutions, employers, social partners and national government agencies. The strategy also underscores the regions’ role in promoting lifelong learning. However, the Act on Regional Development Responsibility does not prescribe formalised governance measures to support these responsibilities. Therefore, the effectiveness of regional efforts hinges entirely on stakeholder interest in and willingness to collaborate on this front.
The financing of regional development initiatives, including those related to skills, draws from various sources, including the EU (notably the European Regional Development Fund and European Social Fund Plus), state funding and the region’s own resources through taxation. State funding is further categorised into compensatory and competitive funding mechanisms. Compensatory funding, often referred to as 1:1 funding, is distributed to all regions based on nationally defined criteria such as population density or labour market conditions. Competitive funding, allocated through an application process, primarily targets research and innovation, with a significant portion going to the regions of Skåne, Stockholm and Västra Götaland (SKR, 2024[13]). Decisions on how to allocate government funding between regional development and skills development are made at the regional level. In practice, much of the work conducted at the regional level to align skills supply and demand relies on project funding, including from the EU, which can significantly impact the sustainability and effectiveness of these endeavours.
Municipalities play a central role in Sweden's national skills system, overseeing the provision of preschool, compulsory education, upper secondary education (including initial VET) and municipal adult education, including educational programmes tailored to immigrants (Swedish for immigrants), within their respective jurisdictions. Beyond education, municipalities also administer social policies and minimum income benefits, offering support programmes for unemployed and inactive individuals (OECD, 2023[14]). As major employers themselves, municipalities are also significant players in the demand side of the skills system: they hire teachers and other staff for preschools and schools, manage school buildings with financial support from the government, and are responsible for school-age educare (Eurydice, 2024[3]).
Non-governmental stakeholders
Non-governmental stakeholders have a pivotal role in Sweden's labour market model, with social partners responsible for wage formation and undertaking a key role in establishing other employment conditions through collective agreements, with substantial autonomy from the government (Medlingsinstitutet, 2023[15]). There is a longstanding tradition of social partnership, and stakeholders involvement in the Swedish skills system is substantial. Since the 1970s, social partners have operated “transition organisations”, also known as “job security councils”, aiding workers who have experienced layoffs driven by economic factors with career guidance and training (TUAC, 2018[16]). Since the introduction of the social-partner driven “transition package” by the government in 2022, individuals not covered by collective agreements and those still in employment can also access support from transition organisations (Government of Sweden, 2022[17]).
Social partners also play an important role in the direct provision of education and training. They collaborate to establish sector-specific training initiatives, such as college structures (see Chapter 4), and cross-sectoral training programmes. Individual employers are also important providers of workplace training, with some establishing training institutions to address specific skills shortages. Sectoral employer associations may also create training institutions focused on upskilling employees.
Social partners and other stakeholders, including education and training providers and social economy organisations (so called “idea-based organisations” in Sweden), contribute to skills policy through councils, arenas and direct engagement with ministries. They provide inputs for policy design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and engage in public awareness and mobilisation efforts on skills policy issues.
Public and private education and training providers are responsible for the different strands of education and training provision (as described in the section above). It should be noted that in Sweden, most higher education institutions (HEIs) have the status of governmental agencies, unlike other education and training providers.
Governance structures in the Swedish skills system
Figure 2.1 provides an overview of the skills governance structures in Sweden, designed specifically to foster collaboration across the whole of government and allow effective engagement with stakeholders on skills policy design, implementation and delivery.
As mentioned above, in 2022 the Swedish government formally tasked seven governmental agencies5 with collaborating to strengthen the nation's skills supply (MYH, 2023[18]). This directive led to amendments in the ordinances with directives of six agencies, mandating permanent participation in the Inter-agency Co-operation Structure for Skills and Lifelong Learning (Myndighetssamverkan för kompetensförsörjning och livslångt lärande, MSV), first established by the agencies in 2019 (see more in Chapter 3). The role of Tillväxtverket was integrated into its annual appropriation directive. The MSV has multi-level governance and includes participants beyond the seven governmental agencies. Its structure is further detailed in Figure 2.2.
Within the MSV (see Figure 2.2), key decisions on strategic direction and resource allocation are made by the Directors-General Group (DG). The Steering Group (StG) supports the DG in decision-making processes by providing background research. It also provides strategic guidance to the working groups (WGs).
Eight distinct working groups have been established, each with a different thematic focus such as skills data analysis and forecasting, and integration of EU skills tools into Sweden's skills system. The Preparation Group, which reports to the StG, supports the StG in strategic decision making by collecting and compiling information. The administrative secretariat helps co‑ordinate between WGs, the Preparation Group and the StG.
In addition to the MSV, Sweden has a large number of co-ordination networks, forums and arenas focusing on skills and lifelong learning topics. These platforms facilitate information exchange and collaboration among agencies on specific topics. For instance, the adult education network, which operates under a rotating chair, focuses on sharing insights and experiences in adult education.
Source: Compilation by the OECD based on publicly available information and information shared by Sweden. Key structures for co-ordination across government and stakeholder engagement are highlighted in darker shades and various actors are highlighted (for context) in light blue shade. Dark purple refers to vertical co‑ordination mechanisms across levels of government; dark yellow denotes horizontal co‑ordination mechanisms between governmental agencies; dark green refers to stakeholder engagement mechanisms; and brown denotes inter‑regional/local collaboration mechanisms.
Sweden has a number of structures in place to enable engagement with stakeholders, some of which also support co‑ordination between agencies (see a simplification in dark green in Figure 2.1). National thematic arenas and councils6 (see more in Chapter 4) provide venues for discussing policy issues related to specific sub-fields of skills policy. For example, the Labour Market Council for Higher Vocational Education (Yrkeshögskolans arbetsmarknadsråd), overseen by MYH, focuses on enhancing relevant educational provision, job matching and labour market efficiency. The National Arena for Skills Supply (Nationell arena för kompetensförsörjning), established within the MSV framework, serves as a strategic platform for engaging stakeholders on skills policy issues without specific thematic or sectoral limitations.
Sweden also has sectoral arenas and councils, such as the National Healthcare Skills Council (Nationella vårdkompetensrådet), which is overseen by the National Board of Health and Welfare (Socialstyrelsen). Sectoral arenas and councils convene stakeholders to jointly address skills needs within particular sectors (i.e. industries) of the Swedish economy and/or collaborate on designing and implementing solutions to meet such needs. One sectoral arena (“The sectoral arena for digital excellence”) is currently being tested by MSV). Under the auspices of this Arena, a conference on cyber-security was organised in November 2023.
Note: Although the Swedish Agency for Innovation Systems (Vinnova) was not included in the 2022 government task it is part of the Steering Group (StG) and is following the work of the Directors-General Group (DG) (Vinnova’s Director-General does not participate in the DG but all StG members, including Vinnova, are invited to DG meetings). Statistics Sweden is part of both the StG and DG. The Swedish National Council of Adult Education (Folkbildningsrådet) is part of both the StG and DG, but as an NGO is not governed in the same way.
Source: Compilation by the OECD based on publicly available information and information shared by Sweden.
The complexity of Sweden’s multi-level skills system and regional disparities in the labour market necessitate robust vertical co‑operation across national, regional/county and local levels of government. Regions and municipalities in Sweden vary significantly in terms of their geographical characteristics, population size and structure, dominant industries, infrastructure, and educational resources. These regional differences contribute to varying challenges related to skills supply and demand. Some regions may face acute shortages in specific skill sets, while others experience mismatches between available skills and local job market needs.
Sweden has established structures for promoting co‑operation on skills issues between the national level and regions/municipalities. For example, Arbetsförmedlingen provides direction on skills supply and demand at the local level through co‑operation agreements with municipalities (see purple in Figure 2.1). There are structures in place for promoting collaboration and engagement on skills at the regional and local levels, some set up by the regions themselves and some by national agencies (see brown in Figure 2.1). For instance, while some regions run and oversee Regional Skills Councils (Regionala Kompetensråd), Tillväxtverket facilitates meetings with regional development managers (erfarenhetsträffar kompetensförsörjning) to promote peer learning and the sharing of best practices in skills development. There are numerous instances of collaboration involving regions, municipalities, and public and private employers, as well as education and training providers, including higher education institutions.
Establishing a comprehensive and coherent skills data7 infrastructure8 is complex. For example, there are many different datasets spanning education across life stages (early years, primary, secondary and tertiary education, and adult learning) and employment, and ongoing efforts to digitalise unstructured data, link datasets and develop systems that can capture learning and labour market transitions and outcomes. There are also many end users – students, career professionals, education and training institutions, workers, employers, policymakers – who require different types of information at different levels of aggregation and presented in different ways. The increased mobility of workers and learners gives greater weight to internationally comparable data and the ability of information systems9 to support data sharing across countries (OECD, 2019[19]).
Well-functioning information systems require strong governance and adequate funding, with clear designation of responsibilities, accountability mechanisms, and policies and procedures that support collaboration and information exchange, while safeguarding data and building trust among stakeholders (OECD, 2020[1]).
This section maps the skills data infrastructure in Sweden. It first presents an overview of the Swedish skills data infrastructure followed by an outline of the key roles and responsibilities of different actors. Finally it provides an analysis of the key sources of data on skills demand, supply and mismatch, and the mechanisms used to disseminate data so that it is used effectively to inform policy design and decision making.
Overview of the Swedish skills data infrastructure
As in other countries, roles and responsibilities for the collection, analysis and dissemination of skills data in Sweden are distributed across a large number of actors, including government agencies, levels of government and non-government stakeholders such as education and training providers, employers and research organisations. Figure 2.3 provides a simplified mapping of the skills data infrastructure in Sweden.
Note: Different colours are used to distinguish between different actors, denoting national government agencies (blue); sub-national government (dark yellow); wider (including non-governmental) stakeholders (dark blue); and actors at the EU level (turquoise). Dark purple identifies inputs and outputs from the skills data infrastructure, dark green denotes co‑ordination mechanisms and dark brown references underlying conditions that influence co‑ordination within Sweden’s skills data infrastructure. EU institutions, policy agenda, and initiatives refer to the EU Skills Agenda, Digital European Program, European common data spaces, Europass, Euroguidance Network, European Digital Wallet, etc. Government agencies refer to Skolverket, UHR, UKÄ, MYH, Arbetsförmedlingen, Tillväxtverket, Vinnova, Digg, Skolforskningsinstitutet, Konjunkturinstitutet; Vetenskapsrådet, etc. Wider research community refers to universities and university colleges, research councils, confederations and associations, sectoral arenas and councils. Wider conditions for promoting collaboration between governmental agencies, regions/municipalities and non-government stakeholders on skills data refer to the Common digital infrastructure (Ena), Common standards and classifications (SSYK, SUN SNI, EMIL, JobTech Skills Taxonomy), open APIs, Digg guidelines for data sharing, legislation (e.g. that supports co‑operation (2017:900) and open data (2022:818)), etc. Sources from which skills data originates refer to individuals, employers, education and training institutions, admissions offices, employment service, etc. Mechanisms for the dissemination of skills data refer to Statistics Sweden website, Public Memorandum (PMs), information portals and digital platforms (e.g. Susa Hub, Sveriges dataportal, MYH qualifications database, Ladok, Beda, etc.
Source: Compilation by the OECD based on publicly available information.
Roles and responsibilities in the Swedish skills data infrastructure
Ministries and governmental agencies
In Sweden, a large number of government agencies, operating under several different ministries, are responsible for different types of skills data related to education at different levels and the labour market. These agencies collect and process data that originates from a range of sources, exchange information with other government agencies, publish official statistics and wider analyses, and provide data inputs to national and international information portals and digital platforms (see Table 2.4).
Source: Compilation by the OECD based on publicly available information and information shared by Sweden.
The Swedish National Agency for Education (Skolverket) is responsible for the national database, Susa‑navet, which collects data on all publicly funded education (municipal and private providers) from compulsory school to higher education and universities. It also conducts research and evaluation and co‑ordinates Sweden’s participation in international education surveys, including the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA).
The Swedish Council for Higher Education (Universitets- och högskolerådet, UHR) compiles data from Sweden’s higher education institutions, publishing admissions statistics and providing information on higher education programmes to potential applicants. UHR also evaluates and has data on foreign qualifications so that it can support people looking for work in Sweden. UHR is responsible for the national grade database, Beda, which collects degrees and final grades from upper secondary education.
The Swedish Higher Education Authority (Universitetskanslersämbetet, UKÄ) publishes annual status reports on the higher education sector based on statistical data reported by higher education institutions.
The Swedish National Agency for Higher Vocational Education (Myndigheten för Yrkeshögskolan, MYH) provides statistical annual reports on higher vocational education and the development of validation of prior learning. It also analyses labour market needs for different sectors or subject disciplines. MYH serves as a national co-ordination point for the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) and provides the qualification database that makes data available on all qualifications in the Swedish qualifications framework.
The Swedish Public Employment Service (Arbetsförmedlingen) provides information on conditions and future prospects in the labour market, including activity statistics on registered jobseekers, vacant jobs reported by employers, employment and occupational forecasts based on operational statistics, and surveys and data-driven models. It is also responsible for a CV profile service that enables jobseekers to make use of their personal skills data. JobTech Development, an established unit within Arbetsförmedlingen, is leading Sweden’s efforts to establish an open platform for digital matching services, including making available data on job advertisements and developing a taxonomy for the labour market that is mapped to the European Classification of Skills, Competences and Occupations (ESCO, discussed further below).
Sweden’s transition organisations also play an important role in the skills data infrastructure, drawing together a broad range of skills data to inform advice and support for employees in transition and mid-career workers who wish to study, find a new job or start a business. For instance, TRR Trygghetsrådet, a transition organisation for private sector white collar workers, has developed a forecast portal (prognosportal) that collects data, via application programming interfaces (APIs), from a range of sources, including labour market forecasts and occupational information from Arbetsförmedlingen, information on publicly funded education from Skolverket, salary statistics from Statistics Sweden (Statistiska Centralbyrån, SCB), and information on the competencies required within different professions or developed through education from JobTech Development.
There are also several specialist research councils and institutes operating under a range of ministries that develop and fund research on the Swedish economy, labour market, skills provision and lifelong learning. These include the Swedish Institute for Educational Research (Skolforskningsinstitutet), the National Institute of Economic Research (Konjunkturinstitutet), the Swedish Research Council (Vetenskapsrådet), the Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare (Forte), and the Institute for Evaluation of Labour Market and Education Policy (Institutet för arbetsmarknads- och utbildningspolitisk utvärdering, IFAU).
Sweden recognises the opportunities that digitalisation presents for supporting a more coherent data infrastructure for skills and how it could increase access to data, create stronger conditions for information exchange, and provide new digital services that promote better matching between skills provision and economic and societal needs. The Agency for Digital Government (Myndigheten för digital förvaltning, Digg) co‑ordinates the digitalisation of public administration and is responsible for Sweden’s national data portal (discussed further below). Vinnova, Sweden’s innovation agency, supports innovation; facilitates collaboration between academia, industry, government and civil society; provides funding and support for research and development projects; nurtures public‑private partnerships; and runs strategic programmes in areas such as health, digitalisation, energy and the environment. Vinnova has been actively involved in initiatives to create common data spaces (see more in Chapter 5).
Regions and municipalities
The multi-level skills system in Sweden and significant regional labour market differences mean that access to granular data on skills supply, demand and mismatches in Sweden’s 21 regions and 290 municipalities is essential. Since 2019, all regions have been responsible for assessing skills needs as part of their statutory duty for regional development. Legislation in 2023 means that regions must establish goals and priorities for regional skills supply and provide assessments of the region’s skills needs in the public and private sectors in the short and long term. Municipalities must also co‑operate on planning, sizing and offering education through an agreement that involves municipalities forming a primary collaboration area for education. The collaboration agreement covers the planning, dimensioning and provision of certain education in upper secondary school and municipal adult education at the upper secondary level.
The Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth (Tillväxtverket) maintains a regional analysis and forecasting system and a database of regional statistics and develops regional matching indicators. Skolverket is tasked with producing regional planning documents to inform the provision of upper secondary education, and analysts at MYH work closely with the Swedish regions and industry trade bodies to align higher vocational education with labour market demand.
Non-governmental stakeholders
Sweden has a long history of close collaboration between government institutions and various other stakeholders from the wider research community, confederations of enterprises and professional associations, as well as higher education institutions10 (Cedefop, 2022[20]).
SCB and Arbetsförmedlingen maintain close contact with employers and employers’ confederations, trade unions and education providers. The Confederation of Swedish Enterprise (Svenskt Näringsliv), the Swedish Federation of Business Owners (Företagarna), the Swedish Confederation of Professional Associations (Sveriges akademikers centralorganisation, SACO) and the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions (Sveriges kommuner och regioner, SKR) each undertake regular surveys or research examining a range of labour market and skills issues. Sector councils and arenas11 also provide skills intelligence on evolving skills needs, employment outlook, and current and anticipated skills deficiencies in the industries they represent.
Key sources of data on skills supply, demand and mismatch
Sweden’s skills data infrastructure (as described in the previous section) supports a well-developed portfolio of high-quality, timely skills data that spans skills supply, demand and mismatch (see Table 2.5).
Sweden benefits from several large national databases, including national registers that capture the education, occupation and industry of employment of almost the entire Swedish population: the Education Register (UREG), the Vocational Register (YREG) and the Business Database (FDB). The administrative databases of a range of different institutions and government agencies are effectively used to produce statistics and analysis covering a wide range of relevant issues, including student enrolment, and achievement and outcomes at different educational levels.
On the demand side, SCB maintains the Labour Force Survey, providing robust and internationally comparable data on labour market conditions. Arbetsförmedlingen produces quarterly Labour Market Situation reports and twice-yearly Labour Market Outlook reports that draw on a combination of operational statistics, survey evidence and forecasts to provide information on the situation and future prospects in the labour market to guide jobseekers towards education or match them with employers' recruitment needs.
Skills anticipation is an important element of advanced labour market information systems, and Sweden is recognised as having a long history of skills assessment and forecasting (Cedefop, 2022[20]). SCB produces robust, model-driven employment projections and forecasts on a rolling three-year basis for education and the labour market over different time horizons. The National Institute for Economic Research (NIER) produces ad hoc research related to skills anticipation and assessment and runs monthly business surveys that examine employment strategies and possible labour shortages. Arbetsförmedlingen also produces short-term occupational forecasts and undertakes long-term occupational field analysis to assess skills needs in different professions. MYH has a statutory duty to analyse the labour market needs for higher vocational education, which it communicates through several analysis reports that detail student enrolments and completions, anticipated demand over the next three to five years, regional demand for different sectors, and aligned educational specialisations. The reports draw on research produced by actors such as employers’ confederations, SCB, Arbetsförmedlingen and others producing data on skills and labour demand in Sweden. The Swedish Agency for Government Employers (Arbetsgivarverket) carries out twice-yearly surveys of state employers to understand skills needs and shortages. Tillväxtverket has a regional analysis and forecasting system (Raps) that features a model system providing baseline forecasts and alternative scenarios at a regional level.
Sweden has developed a range of statistical information to examine the extent to which the skills being developed in the education system are well aligned to the needs of the labour market. For instance, the Ladok consortium – a consortium of 40 universities and the Swedish Board of Student Finance (Centrala studiestödsnämnden, CSN), which manages the Ladok educational administration system – has developed an advanced statistical tool that links data from several of Sweden’s registers to allow users to examine graduate outcomes and destinations. SCB’s longstanding Labour Market Tendency survey examines skills alignment, surplus and shortage in different fields. Regional Matching Indicators produced by SCB and Tillväxtverket also examine alignment between education and occupational demand in regions.
Source: Compilation by the OECD based on publicly available information and information shared by Sweden.
Mechanisms for the dissemination of skills data
Sweden disseminates skills data through a range of different mechanisms (Table 2.6). All national statistics are published on the SCB website,12 as well as through a range of public memorandums (PMs), reports and the SCB Statistical Database.
Other national agencies have developed various digital platforms for sharing public information with policymakers, the research community and end users such as employers, education providers, careers guidance professionals, jobseekers and learners.
Source: Compilation by the OECD based on publicly available information and information shared by Sweden.
References
[20] Cedefop (2022), Skills anticipation in Sweden, European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/data-insights/skills-anticipation-sweden.
[5] Cedefop (2021), Vocational education and training in Europe - Sweden, European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/vet-in-europe/systems/sweden-u2.
[21] educations.com (2023), Entry requirements for Swedish universities, https://www.educations.com/study-guides/europe/study-in-sweden/requirements-11344.
[3] Eurydice (2024), Key Features of the Education System, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/sweden/overview (accessed on 1 October 2024).
[2] Eurydice (2023), Adult education and training, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/sweden/adult-education-and-training (accessed on 1 October 2024).
[7] Government of Sweden (2024), Myndigheter och bolag med statligt ägande [Authorities and companies with state ownership], https://www.regeringen.se/sa-styrs-sverige/myndigheter-och-bolag-med-statligt-agande/ (accessed on 1 October 2024).
[6] Government of Sweden (2023), Stricter conditions for low-skilled labour immigration and improved conditions for highly skilled labour, https://www.government.se/government-policy/swedens-new-migration-policy/skarpa-villkoren-for-arbetskraftsinvandring/.
[9] Government of Sweden (2023), Uppdrag att samordna arbetet på nationell nivå för att stödja nyindustrialiseringen och samhällsomvandlingen i Norrbottens och Västerbottens län, [Assignment to coordinate work at national level to support new industrialization and societal transformation in Norrbotten and Västerbotten counties], https://www.regeringen.se/regeringsuppdrag/2023/06/1.---uppdrag-att-samordna-arbetet-pa-nationell-niva-for-att-stodja-nyindustrialiseringen-och-samhallsomvandlingen-i-norrbottens-och-vasterbottens-lan (accessed on 1 October 2024).
[17] Government of Sweden (2022), Flexibility, adaptability and security in the labour market, https://www.government.se/information-material/2022/04/flexibility-adaptability-and-security/#Transitionandskillssupport.
[12] Government of Sweden (2021), Nationell strategi för hållbar regional utveckling i hela landet 2021–2030 [National Strategy for Sustainable Regional Development, 2021–2030], https://www.regeringen.se/rattsliga-dokument/skrivelse/2021/03/skr.-202021133 (accessed on 1 October 2024).
[8] Government of Sweden (2021), Uppdrag att utveckla en sammanhållen datainfrastruktur för kompetensförsörjning och livslångt lärande [Mission to develop a coherent data infrastructure for competence provision and lifelong learning], https://www.regeringen.se/regeringsuppdrag/2021/06/uppdrag-att-utveckla-en-sammanhallen-datainfrastruktur-for-kompetensforsorjning-och-livslangt-larande/ (accessed on 1 October 2024).
[15] Medlingsinstitutet (2023), The Swedish model & collective agreements: A brief introduction, Medlingsinstitutet (Swedish National Mediation Office), https://www.mi.se/app/uploads/the-swedish-model-and-collective-agreements.pdf.
[18] MYH (2023), Myndighetssamverkan för kompetensförsörjning och livslångt lärande [Authority co-operation for competence provision and lifelong learning], Myndigheten för yrkeshögskolan (Swedish National Agency for Higher Vocational Education), https://www.myh.se/om-oss/myndighetssamverkan-och-samverkansprojekt/myndighetssamverkan (accessed on 1 October 2024).
[14] OECD (2023), “Organisation of public employment services at the local level in Sweden”, Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED) papers, No. 2023/01, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/24edca19-en.
[1] OECD (2020), Strengthening the Governance of Skills Systems: Lessons from Six OECD Countries, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3a4bb6ea-en.
[19] OECD (2019), OECD Skills Strategy 2019: Skills to Shape a Better Future, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264313835-en.
[4] Skolverket (2011), “Overview of the Swedish upper secondary school”, https://www.skolverket.se/download/18.6bfaca41169863e6a659a16/1553964183391/pdf2748.pdf (accessed on 5 November 2024).
[13] SKR (2024), Så finansieras regional utveckling [How regional development is financed], Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner (Swedish Association for Local Authorities and Regions), https://skr.se/skr/samhallsplaneringinfrastruktur/regionalutveckling/regionaltutvecklingsansvar/safinansierasregionalutveckling.9791.html (accessed on 1 October 2024).
[10] SKR (2023), Municipalities and regions, Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner (Swedish Association for Local Authorities and Regions), https://skr.se/skr/englishpages/municipalitiesandregions.1088.html (accessed on 1 October 2024).
[11] Swedish Parliament (2022), Act on Regional Development Responsibility (2010:630), Sveriges Riksdag (Swedish Parliament), Stockholm, https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-och-lagar/dokument/svensk-forfattningssamling/lag-2010630-om-regionalt-utvecklingsansvar_sfs-2010-630/ (accessed on 1 October 2024).
[16] TUAC (2018), The Swedish Job Security Councils – A case study on social partners’ led transitions, The Trade Union Advisory Committee (TUAC) to the OECD, https://tuac.org/news/the-swedish-job-security-councils-a-case-study-on-social-partners-led-transitions/.
← 1. Skills system governance is defined as encompassing four key pillars, as explained in Figure 2.1.
← 2. A skills system can be broadly defined as covering all institutions and individuals, as well as policies, laws and regulations, concerned with the development and use of skills in an economy. Therefore, skills policies are at the intersection of various sectors of the education system, including early childhood education and care (ECEC); schools; vocational education and training (VET); adult learning and higher education; labour market policies, especially those that aim to make use of existing skills such as active labour market and training policies; policies that support the adoption of high-performance workplace practices; and certain immigration policies (OECD, 2020[1]).
← 3. “Basic eligibility”, also referred to as “general entry requirements”, refers to common key requirements that applicants need to meet to apply for higher education in Sweden (e.g. completion of upper secondary education, proficiency in English). Applicants may also need to meet specific requirements for different academic programmes (educations.com, 2023[21]).
← 4. Public higher education institutions in Sweden are also national agencies.
← 5. The Swedish National Agency for Higher Vocational Education (Myndigheten för Yrkeshögskolan, MYH), the Swedish Public Employment Service (Arbetsförmedlingen), the Swedish Higher Education Authority (Universitetskanslersämbetet, UKÄ), the Swedish Council for Higher Education (Universitets- och högskolerådet, UHR), the Swedish National Agency for Education (Skolverket), the Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth (Tillväxtverket) and the Council for the European Social Fund in Sweden (Swedish ESF Council, Svenska ESF-rådet).
← 6. In Sweden, councils are typically formal bodies appointed by the government (with certain exceptions, such as Regional Skills Councils). Arenas are less formal platforms/groups convened by agencies for collaboration, co-operation and co‑ordination with stakeholders.
← 7. Skills data refers to quantitative (statistics) or qualitative (e.g. input from stakeholders) information on the supply and demand for skills in the economy and society; skills alignment, surplus and shortage; competence provision and lifelong learning; learning outcomes; skills use; and changing skills needs.
← 8. Skills data infrastructure is defined by the 2021 government task as the conditions for making data and digital information available about education and the labour market, where public sector and external actors can collaborate and share data, conceptual structures and specifications to create new services useful for skills provision and lifelong learning.
← 9. Information systems collect and manage the data and information that government and other stakeholders produce, analyse and disseminate to ensure that policymakers, firms, individuals and others have access to accurate, timely, detailed and tailored information to inform decision making.
← 10. As noted above, most of higher education institutions in Sweden have the status of governmental agencies.
← 11. In Sweden, councils are typically formal bodies appointed by the government (with certain exceptions, such as Regional Skills Councils). Arenas are less formal platforms/groups convened by agencies for collaboration, co-operation and co-ordination with stakeholders.