International Migration Outlook 2025

Executive summary

Migration flows remained high in 2024

Following three years of sharp post-pandemic increases, permanent migration to OECD countries declined by 4% in 2024. The total of 6.2 million new permanent immigrants remains nevertheless historically high – 15% above 2019 levels.

Family remained the leading reason for permanent migration to OECD countries. Labour migration declined (‑21%), after a sustained increase since 2020. Humanitarian migration increased (+23%) due to the high number of asylum applications in preceding years and a record level of new resettled refugees (+19%).

Temporary labour migration to OECD countries stabilised in 2024 at a historically high-level. Approximately 2.3 million work permits and authorisations were granted in OECD countries (excluding Poland), a 26% increase relative to 2019.

In 2024, OECD countries welcomed over 1.8 million international tertiary-education students, 13% fewer than in 2023. This decline was primarily due to decreasing inflows to all top four receiving countries – United States (‑12%); United Kingdom (‑14%); Canada (‑39%) and Australia (‑22%).

The number of new asylum seekers in the OECD continued to increase (+13%) and was the highest on record, with 3 million new applications registered in 2024. The surge was driven by the United States, but increases were also recorded in Canada and the United Kingdom, while in the rest of the OECD the number of applications decreased.

Detections of irregular border crossings at EU borders decreased rapidly in 2024 (‑37%), as did Border Patrol encounters in the United States (‑48%), while detections of attempts to enter the United Kingdom irregularly increased by 19%. At the same time, returns from the EU, the United Kingdom and the United States increased steadily between 2021 and 2024.

Labour market outcomes of immigrants continue to be at record levels

Following a strong post-pandemic recovery in 2022‑2023, labour market outcomes for immigrants saw more mixed trends in 2024 as the employment rate of immigrants improved further in only half of OECD countries. On average, almost 77% of immigrants were economically active, with almost 71% employed and less than 10% unemployed in 2024.

Overall, the evolution of both employment and labour participation rates was more favourable among migrant women than men. In a third of OECD countries, immigrant women’s employment rates increased while men’s decreased, leading to some of the lowest gaps between men and women in years.

Migration and integration policies are going through significant changes

In reaction to very high migration inflows, a number of OECD countries have set explicit objectives to reduce migration, either for overall migration or for specific categories. Labour migration policies are increasingly tailored to talent attraction and to meet specific labour market needs.

Asylum systems have become more restrictive in many countries, with faster procedures, reduced benefits, and new limits on family reunification. In many countries, international student policies are under review, with some countries tightening admission and post-study rights, while others are enhancing retention pathways to support labour market integration.

Regarding integration policies, while some OECD countries are expanding integration frameworks (Belgium, Canada, Germany), others have tightened access and increased obligations (Finland, the Netherlands). Integration is increasingly tied to labour market needs and new programmes have been developed to foster labour market integration.

Targeted support for migrant women is growing – recognition of skills is being streamlined, and the offer for bridging courses and micro-credential programmes is being scaled up.

Immigrants work disproportionately in lower-paying firms and sectors

New linked employer-employee panel data for 15 OECD countries between 2000 and 2019 show that immigrants at entry in the labour market earn 34% less than native‑born workers of the same age and sex. Two-thirds of this gap is due to immigrants working in lower-paying sectors and firms.

The immigrant earnings gap decreases by about one‑third in the first five years in the host country, and by about half in the first ten years. This is partly driven by immigrants moving to higher-paying sectors and firms.

Policies that target barriers to job mobility should feature more prominently in the integration policy toolkit. This includes providing information on job search, career counselling and the development of professional networks, but also improving local transportation and access to affordable housing, among others.

OECD health systems continue to rely heavily on migrant doctors and nurses

In 2020‑2021 there were more than 830 000 foreign-born doctors and 1.75 million foreign-born nurses working in the OECD, representing respectively about one-quarter and one-sixth of the workforce in each occupation. Corresponding figures for foreign-trained doctors and nurses are 606 000 (18.4%) and 733 000 (8.3%) in 2021‑2023.

About one in five foreign-born doctors and nurses originate from an EEA country. Asia is the main region of origin, accounting for approximately 40% of doctors and 37% of nurses. India, Germany and China are the main countries of origin for doctors, while the Philippines, India and Poland are the top three countries for nurses. About 89 000 doctors and 257 000 nurses come from countries on the WHO Health Workforce Support and Safeguards List, raising concerns about the possible impact of the international mobility of health workers on the fragile health systems of these countries.

Migration policies are evolving to facilitate international recruitment in the health sector, but recognition and licensing remain major barriers to labour market integration of migrant health professionals.

Key findings

• In 2024, more than 160 million people living in OECD countries were foreign-born. Since 2014, the share of foreign-born rose from 9.1% to 11.5%.

• In most OECD countries, permanent migration declined in 2024 compared to 2023, namely in EU countries. New Zealand and the United Kingdom also experienced sharp declines after record levels post-pandemic. In contrast, permanent migration to the United States continued to rise (+20%).

• The number of new seasonal migrants and working holidaymakers increased in 2024 (+8% and +4%). In contrast, the number of migrants participating in national temporary foreign worker programmes decreased (‑7%), after strong growth post COVID‑19 pandemic. Inflows of intra-company transferees continued to decline (‑3%) in 2024.

• More than half of the 3 million asylum applications in the OECD were registered in the United States in 2024. Top origin countries of applicants included Venezuela, Colombia, Syria, Afghanistan and India.