Recognising the strategic potential of the Trans-Caspian Transport Corridor (TCTC), the countries of Central Asia have strengthened regional dialogue on trade facilitation and accelerated hard infrastructure investments. However, beyond infrastructure gaps, insufficient co-ordination on trade facilitation reforms, informal fees and limited private sector investment in warehousing and infrastructure, as well as competition issues, continue to constrain the region’s trade potential.
Enhancing the Competitiveness of the Trans‑Caspian Transport Corridor in Central Asia
Abstract
The region is crossed by several international corridors
A trade and transport corridor is a coordinated network of transport and logistics infrastructure and services designed to facilitate the movement of passengers and goods between major economic centres (Carruthers and Kunaka, 2014[1]). These corridors can be multimodal, relying on air, sea, rail, and road networks to enable efficient communication and exchange. The primary objectives of corridor development are to enhance connectivity between local economies, optimise infrastructure usage, and promote integration and interoperability across different modes of transport.
Several transport corridors go through the territory of Central Asia, placing the region in a strategic logistics position. These include the Northern Corridor linking China to Europe via Kazakhstan and Russia, the Trans-Caspian Transport Corridor (TCTC) linking China to Europe via the Caspian Sea, the Southern Corridor connecting China to Europe via Iranian ports, the North-South Corridor (under development) running from Russia to India via Central Asia and Iran to India, and the Trans-Afghan Corridor running through Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan.
Trade facilitation and enhanced transport connectivity can support exports and investment attractiveness
Improving connectivity on these corridors can enhance Central Asia’s attractiveness to investors by reducing costs and expanding market access. Central Asia is distant from major global markets and reliant on a limited number of export commodities and trading partners. This geographical isolation imposes “distance penalties” that increase transport and trade costs, limit competitiveness, and expose the region to economic and political risks (OECD, 2023[2]). Improved transport connectivity can help address these challenges by lowering trade costs, increasing trade volumes, and fostering regional integration. Ultimately, it can support the region’s integration into global value chains (ADBI, 2020[3]).
Trade facilitation can make exports more competitive at relatively low cost. Trade facilitation efforts include, but are not limited to, streamlined and digital border procedures. Thanks to the reduction of the time and cost of moving goods, both exports and imports become cheaper, bolstering the development of local businesses by enabling them to supply more goods to global markets and to diversify trade partners. Cheaper imports, in turn, reduce inflationary pressures on households while also offering more product diversity and fostering competition.
The TCTC has become of strategic relevance
The TCTC has received renewed attention following Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine and the ensuing disruptions in trade routes and supply chains. The TCTC, which runs from China to Europe via Central Asia, involves several border crossings, as well as maritime transport across the Caspian Sea, and then continues through Azerbaijan and Georgia, Türkiye and/or Romania and Bulgaria. The route serves to bypass the Northern Corridor which runs through Russia’s territory.
Source: OECD and Pictoris (2025)
The volume of goods traffic along the TCTC increased by 62% in 2024, reaching 4.5 million tons, but the TCTC’s capacity remains well below that of the Northern Corridor (Table 2.1). Logistical and infrastructural bottlenecks, along with coordination issues among member states, continue to prevent the TCTC from operating at its full potential. Central Asian countries and their partners nonetheless intend to increase the potential of the corridor. China is significantly investing in corridor development by funding road renovations, railway projects, dry ports and terminals. The EU and its partners have also committed over 10 billion EUR as part of the EU’s Global Gateway strategy to improve connectivity, trade efficiency and support economic growth in Central Asia (European Commission, 2024[4]).
The corridor is a core component of the EU’s connectivity agenda
The TCTC holds strategic significance for the EU by providing an alternative, resilient trade route between Europe and Central Asia, thereby reducing reliance on traditional transit countries and contributing to more diversified and secure supply chains. In support of its connectivity priorities, the EU requested the OECD to conduct an in-depth analysis of recent developments along the TCTC. This analysis aims to inform evidence-based policy-making and to identify practical measures that can enhance the corridor’s efficiency, viability, and competitiveness in line with broader EU connectivity objectives.
The OECD assessed latest improvements and challenges on the TCTC upon the EU’s request
The OECD gathered private-sector stakeholders’ perceptions of improvements and bottlenecks in the TCTC and contrasted these with government views. It designed questionnaires which were structured around 35 questions covering transport infrastructure, trade facilitation, regional integration, and sustainability considerations. In total, 150 EU and local businesses (roughly 30 by country), across key sectors including logistics, manufacturing, agriculture and transport, were surveyed to assess their perceptions of progress and to pinpoint challenges affecting the TCTC’s competitiveness. Relevant ministries, agencies and committees from the five Central Asian governments provided written answers to the OECD questionnaire. Additional fact-finding interviews were also undertaken both online and during field missions in Central Asia. The project’s methodology and the stakeholders involved are further described in the annex to this report. Results are summarised in country chapters subdivided under the following topics: infrastructure, trade facilitation, and other developments reported by the private sector. The analysis is complemented by tailored policy recommendations at the end of each chapter.
The TCTC can support regional integration but is hindered by several challenges
Central Asian countries increasingly recognise the strategic value of the TCTC, not just as a transit route but as a catalyst for economic modernisation and regional integration. The corridor offers opportunities to diversify trade partners, attract foreign investment, and secure access to advanced technologies, while also generating transit revenues and supporting local economies through job creation and infrastructure upgrades. The EU and other partners of the region have also expressed their interest in cooperating with Central Asia to increase supply chains resilience and protect economic sovereignty.
Despite positive developments, several challenges continue to hinder the corridor from reaching its full potential. Persistent competition among states often leads to protectionist measures, such as mandatory hiring of local drivers, compulsory transfer of goods to local trucks at border crossings, or bribe requests directed at foreign drivers at border-crossing points (BCPs). Another issue in the region is the reliance on transit permits (dozvoly). These permits are artificially limited in number, and the opaque allocation process makes it difficult for transport operators to plan their routes and schedules efficiently. Furthermore, the countries of Central Asia are not all members of the same economic unions or organisations, which hinders mutual recognition of documentation and the harmonisation of trade procedures. As a result, transport operators and businesses must navigate a fragmented regulatory landscape, facing diverse certification requirements and customs processes. This patchwork of rules further complicates cross-border trade and increases administrative burdens.
Road infrastructure has undergone significant upgrading across the region
Countries in the region have made significant investments in road expansion and maintenance to accommodate the rising volume of goods in transit. Due to the region’s challenging topography, road transport has long been the preferred mode for many countries—a trend that is expected to persist in the foreseeable future. Approaches to road development vary: Kazakhstan and Tajikistan have focused primarily on rehabilitating existing roads, while the Kyrgyz Republic, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan are investing in expanding their road networks by constructing new routes and increasing the capacity of existing ones, often through the development of parallel or duplicate roads.
The private sector has observed an overall improvement in road quality and recognises the cost-effectiveness of road transport. Nevertheless, stakeholders report that these enhancements have not kept pace with increasing traffic volumes, leading to growing congestion. Moreover, both road rehabilitation and expansion efforts often lack sufficient supporting infrastructure, such as rest areas, which reduces comfort and safety for drivers.
The development of the region’s railway network will support growing East-West traffic
With the exception of Kazakhstan, the region’s railway network remains underdeveloped. Much of the rail infrastructure was built during the Soviet era, primarily along north-south corridors, resulting in limited connectivity and numerous dead-end lines. The predominance of single-track railways further restricts the flexibility and efficiency of goods movement, especially when compared to the more adaptable road network. Additionally, outdated network management systems—many of which are Soviet-era legacies—continue to impede the development of modern transport operations. The absence of open data within these systems also hampers the analysis required for effective planning, forecasting, and decision-making (Logistan, 2025[10]).
Recent railway developments are meant to improve the region’s East-West connectivity. Kazakhstan in particular continues to solidify its role as a transit hub by launching new container rail services linking China to Europe via the TCTC. Major projects in 2025 include the completion of the Dostyk-Moyynty double track line, the Almaty bypass and the Darbaza-Maktaaral line as well as the launch of construction on the Kyzylzhar-Moyynty and Bakhty-Ayagoz lines. By 2029, Kazakhstan intends to have built or modernised 11,000 km of its railway network (Rail News KZ, 2025[11]). Meanwhile, the China-Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan (CKU) railway, construction of which officially began in 2025, is set to provide another east-west corridor from Kashgar in China through the Kyrgyz Republic and Uzbekistan. This project will provide an alternative to the established Kazakhstan-China link and should bring a competitive dynamic with a new railway bypassing Kazakhstan (The Jamestown Foundation, 2025[12]).
Maritime transport across the Caspian Sea is hindered by a lack of vessels, unpredictable weather and declining sea level
Caspian Sea ports are critical nodes along the corridor but they face persistent challenges related to vessel availability, harsh winter weather, and declining sea levels. The private sector reports that waiting times at Kazakhstani ports are generally longer than at Turkmenbashi, despite Kazakhstan having seven vessels available for Trans-Caspian Transport Corridor (TCTC) transit, compared to just two in Turkmenistan. Lower cargo volumes and more favourable weather conditions in Turkmenbashi, relative to the ports of Aktau and Kuryk, make shipments more predictable and frequent. For example, in November and December 2024, Kuryk port was closed for half the time due to adverse conditions (Tengrinews, 2024[13]). The impact of bad weather is exacerbated by the Caspian Sea’s shallowness, which intensifies wave action and instability.
Most vessels are provided by Azerbaijan, and more capacity is needed to meet demand. Furthermore, the sea’s shallow waters restrict the loading capacity of vessels, particularly in the northern part of the Caspian, where ongoing shallowing is most pronounced. In September 2024, for instance, ships departing from Aktau operated at just 50% capacity (Port of Aktau, 2024[14]). Central Asia countries are actively seeking solutions to the shortage of vessels, though significant challenges remain. Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan both plan to expand their fleets to alleviate the current bottleneck: Kazakhstan intends to order seven additional vessels and is also considering the construction of a domestic shipbuilding and repair facility. Meanwhile, Turkmenistan has finalised an agreement for the delivery of two more vessels. Uzbekistan, in partnership with Azerbaijan, also announced a joint initiative to establish a ferry production facility to serve its transport needs on the Caspian Sea (Kun.uz, 2024[15]). However, only a specific class of ferry—meeting strict length, width, and draft requirements and accommodating a limited number of wagons—can operate effectively under the region’s unique conditions (Port of Kuryk, 2024[16]).
Delivering these specialised ferries presents yet another challenge, as private sector reports highlight. The only viable route is through the Volga-Don Canal and the Volga River, both of which impose restrictions on vessel dimensions. While it is technically possible to disassemble, transport, and reassemble the ferries, this process incurs significant additional costs that would ultimately be passed on to customers, further driving up tariffs. In addition, sanctions against Russia because of its full-scale invasion of Ukraine limit vessel operations, restrict the imports of parts and technologies and complicate financing to ensure compliance. As a result, despite a clear recognition of the urgency and a strong commitment to resolving the issue, operators face significant obstacles. They must either locate and transport suitable ferries from elsewhere in the world or invest in developing local shipbuilding capacity.
The Caspian Sea, the world’s largest inland body of water, borders five countries: Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan. It stretches approximately 1,200 km from north to south and about 320km from east to west, covering an area of roughly 387,000 km2. The sea consists of three distinct basins: the shallow northern basin, which has an average depth of 5 m, the middle basin, reaching depths up to 788 m, and the southern basin, which exceeds 1000 m in depth.
The Caspian Sea receives inflow from approximately 130 rivers, with over 80% of the total inflow coming from the Volga and Ural rivers in the north. Between 2006 and 2024, the sea level dropped by about 2,5meters, primarily due to reduced precipitation (about 5.13cm/year), increased evaporation (about 8.82cm/year), decreased runoff (about 5.2cm/year), rising sea surface temperatures, regulation of river inflows, desalination projects, and hydrocarbon pollution. The new World Bank study identifies future declines under different climate scenarios, depending on global emissions and regional water management: in the low-emissions scenario, Caspian Sea levels are projected to fall by about 1 m by 2030 and up to 2.4 m by 2090; in the moderate-emissions scenario, by about 0.8 m by 2030 and 2.9 m by 2090; and in the high-emissions scenario, the most severe outcome, by 1.7 m by the 2030s and as much as 7.4 m by 2090.
A continued decline in water levels would have severe environmental, economic and infrastructural consequences for the region, including the loss of critical habitats for indigenous species like the Caspian seal and sturgeon, a reduction of up to 94% in marine protected areas, and the potential obsolescence of billions of dollars’ worth of civil and industrial infrastructure.
Long-term water management issues raise significant concerns: historically, 75 to 80% of fresh water to the Caspian Sea has come from the Volga River; the average annual inflow is approximately 240 km³/year but over the last 3.5 years Volga runoff has decreased by nearly 15-20%, as Russia has built several dams and increased water use for agriculture upstream. Urgent measures include enhanced monitoring of river flows, quantifying the effects of dams, irrigation, and upstream withdrawals, and promoting regional cooperation to stabilize inflows. Source: (Rodionov, S. N., 1994[17]), (Leroy, S. A. G. et al., 2020[18]), (Beda.media, 2024[19]), (Court, R., Lattuada, M., Shumeyko, N. et al., 2025[20]), (EDB, 2025[21]), (World Bank, 2025[22])
The actions taken by some Caspian littoral states, along with ongoing cooperation to address immediate challenges, demonstrate a willingness to confront the sea’s pressing issues. However, without long-term efforts and the integration of environmental considerations into regional transport infrastructure, a sustainable solution for the Caspian Sea remains out of reach. Kazakhstan has taken notable steps, completing dredging operations in Kuryk to restore full vessel capacity, while similar works in Aktau are underway. Nevertheless, these measures are only temporary solutions; no country has yet implemented a comprehensive, long-term strategy. Without coordinated, regionally planned efforts to ensure the sustainable management of transport infrastructure and Caspian Sea resources, the region could face an environmental catastrophe reminiscent of the Aral Sea disaster, albeit on a far greater scale.
Warehouse construction is booming but storage space is still insufficient and expensive
The multimodal nature of the TCTC requires significant storage capacities to ensure efficient cargo flow, but the region faces an acute shortage of modern warehouse space. The private sector reports a lack of high-quality storage capacities, especially of A class and cold storage facilities. Historic underinvestment in storage facilities, combined with the region’s predominantly mountainous terrain—where available plains are typically reserved for agriculture—poses significant challenges for investors seeking suitable plots for new warehouse developments. Agrologistics remains underdeveloped in the region, with a significant portion of agricultural products stored in dry warehouses at room temperature or in garage cooperatives (EDB, 2025[23]). As a result, several private sector respondents across the region report significant economic losses during the summer season due to food spoilage.
Demand for, and commissioning of, storage space is expected to remain strong. Demand is currently driven by strong growth in the e-commerce and retail sectors, demographic momentum and the continued modernisation of agriculture, which focuses on reducing post-harvest losses and increasing export potential (IBC Global, 2025[24]). The overall supply of warehouse facilities increased by 23% in 2024 across Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. In Uzbekistan alone, warehouse capacity increased by 165% in 2024, bringing total high-quality warehouse area to 500,000 sq. m. (Logirus, 2025[25]).
Despite an increase in the supply of warehouse facilities and higher vacancy rates, rental prices have continued to rise over the past few years and remain above the EU average. In Kazakhstan, Class A and B vacancy rates rose from 1.2% to 6.6% and from 1.1% to 4.0%, respectively, between 3Q2024 and 1Q2025 (NF Group, 2025). In contrast, vacancy rates in the Kyrgyz Republic and Tajikistan have remained around 0% for over a year. As of 1Q2025, storage prices in Uzbekistan were the highest in the region—averaging USD 139 per m² per year for Class A facilities—followed by Kazakhstan at USD 123 per m². For Class B facilities, average prices stood at USD 81 per m² per year in both Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan (ibid). Outside Kazakhstan, countries have limited or no available warehouse space for custody and third-party logistics (3PL) services, keeping vacancy close to zero and driving up storage costs, which in turn increases the overall cost of shipments along the corridor.
Countries of the region have mainly relied on development finance and public debt for infrastructure development
Transport infrastructure financing in Central Asia has been characterised by a heavy reliance on development finance and public debt, with limited private capital involvement. The region faces barriers to attracting private investment, including underdeveloped financial markets, dominance of state-owned enterprises, limited experience in Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) and high perceived political and financial risks. As a result, the bulk of infrastructure funding in the region comes from multilateral and bilateral development banks and state budgets. Kazakhstan stands out as having attracted private investment in projects such as grain terminal development in Kuryk Port (AD Ports Group, 2025[26]) or the Big Almaty Ring Road (BAKAD) (Global Infrastructure Hub, 2021[27]). Uzbekistan recently attracted significant private investment in warehouse development including companies such as the Russian Wildberries or Uzbek Uzum. Other countries of the region primarily depend on public resources and concessional loans, with private sector participation remaining minimal due to institutional and market constraints.
To attract more private capital investment in (transport) infrastructure projects, the governments of Central Asia could focus on a dual strategy: i) building an enabling environment for investments, which the OECD has been supporting the region with, and ii) adopting additional risk mitigation instruments. The latter include:
supporting alternative infrastructure financing models through the use of financial structures and vehicles that include governmental de-risking instruments (minimum payments by contracting authority, default guarantees, refinancing guarantees, exchange rate guarantees),
leveraging the capabilities of national and multilateral development banks to derisk projects (MDBs can for example finance high-risk components in a larger infrastructure project to reduce the risk burden on private investors),
making (quasi-)equity contributions with the aim of enhancing financing and risk profiles of infrastructure projects,
establishing dedicated guarantee funds to support the development of PPPs,
alleviating currency risk by promoting local currency investments and hedging instruments,
setting up governance frameworks for project development that enhance the management of commercial, financial and legal risks, and
promoting blended finance approaches that involve the government and/or development finance institutions.
Source: (OECD, 2020[28])
The region has made significant improvements in trade facilitation
Central Asian countries have made significant process in trade facilitation in recent years. According to the 2024 OECD Trade Facilitation Indicators (TFIs), the region has achieved the most notable improvements in average trade facilitation performance among all countries in Europe and Central Asia, earning recognition as leading reformers, with Uzbekistan topping the list (OECD, 2025[29]). In some of the indicators, such as the involvement of the trade community, the score is close to the OECD average, or exceeds it, for example in advance rulings1. Nevertheless, the region still trails the OECD average (Figure 2.2) and best performers (Figure 2.3) in overall performance.
Note: Turkmenistan TFI data are dated 2022 (OECD, 2023[30]) and are also incomplete.
Source: (OECD, 2025[31])
Note: updated data for Turkmenistan is not available
Source: OECD TFI database, 2025 (OECD, 2025[31])
Central Asia is pursuing its integration into regional and international conventions to facilitate access to global markets
Central Asian countries have intensified high-level regional trade cooperation. This includes adopting and signing regional conventions that address border dispute resolution and strengthen regional collaboration through initiatives such as the “Central Asia – 2040” strategy and the EU’s BOMCA programme for enhanced security and border management. Regional dialogue is further promoted through platforms like CAREC (Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation Program), TRACECA (Transport Corridor Europe-Caucasus-Asia), the EU-supported Ready4Trade initiative, and a joint Trade Facilitation Committee in Central Asia (supported by GIZ). Additionally, Kazakhstan and the Kyrgyz Republic, as members of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), have implemented trade facilitation measures that improve efficiency, such as electronic navigation seals (Box 2.3).
At the international level, Central Asian countries are actively engaged in trade facilitation agreements and conventions. Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are in the process of WTO accession, while the other countries are already WTO members. Uzbekistan signed a new Enhanced Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (EPCA) with the European Union in October 2025. All countries except Turkmenistan have ratified the UN TIR Convention, which simplifies and harmonises the international road transport of goods by creating a standardised customs transit system. International cooperation is also fostered through the C5+1 format, which includes summits and annual meetings at ministerial and presidential levels with partners such as the United States, China, and the European Union. These international conventions and dialogues play a crucial role in aligning Central Asian countries with global standards and enhancing their participation in the international community.
Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU)
The EAEU is an international economic union of five countries - Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Armenia, and the Kyrgyz Republic —that facilitates a single market allowing free movement of goods, services, capital, and labour, aiming to enhance economic integration and competitiveness among its members. It provides common policies in transport, energy, trade, and investment sectors, thereby promoting coordinated infrastructure and economic links across the Eurasian region. One of the most notable advancements is an electronic navigation seal – a reusable identification system utilising a global navigation satellite system. The collaboration within the Union is actively evolving. In November 2024, member states agreed to launch a pilot project of the use of electronic international consignment notes (e-CMR) in the EAEU countries. Additionally, a strategic document “The Directions and Implementation Stages of the Coordinated (Agreed) Transport Policy of the Member States of the Eurasian Economic Union for 2024–2026” has been approved. The document extends the previous roadmap and includes 33 concrete actions to be implemented in the covered period.
Transport Corridor Europe-Caucasus-Asia (TRACECA)
The Intergovernmental Commission (IGC) TRACECA is an international transport programme aimed at promoting regional transport dialogue, ensuring efficient and reliable Euro-Asian transport connections, and supporting the overall development of the regional economy. The programme plays a significant role in the region when it comes to harmonisation of legislation among member states and collaboration with the European Union.
Central Asia Economic Cooperation (CAREC)
The CAREC program goes beyond transport development, though it includes a significant focus on enhancing connectivity. Infrastructure and Connectivity is one of the five prioritised clusters. The working group meets regularly and discusses the progress and next steps in regard to the Middle Corridor development, covering both soft2 and hard infrastructure. CAREC also regularly provides capacity-building activities for its member countries and prepares knowledge products.
Organisation for Cooperation between Railways (OSJD)
The Organisation for Cooperation between Railways (OSJD) is an international organization that unites railways across Europe and Asia. It focuses on harmonising technical standards and operational procedures to facilitate efficient international railway transport. OSJD aims to improve standards and cooperation in railway traffic between countries of Europe and Asia, including goods transport, and addresses issues related to traffic policy and economic aspects of railway operations.
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)
SCO countries collaborate on a wide range of areas, including politics, economy, international security, and defence. Since its establishment, the SCO has placed a strong emphasis on developing the transport sector, with particular attention to the railway industry. Such documents as the Programme of Multilateral Trade and Economic Cooperation of the SCO member states (extended until 2035) or the Action Plan for 2023-2027, serve as a framework for strategic development of transport connections between member states. In 2023, the first SCO International Transport Forum was held in Tashkent, where participants discussed possibilities of further connectivity enhancement, and shared their views on best practices for creating sustainable supply chains, advancing ongoing infrastructure projects, and bolstering sustainable economic growth.
United Nations Special Programme for the Economies of Central Asia (UNECE SPECA)
The programme aims at strengthening economic cooperation and integration between Central Asian countries, as well as their integration in the global economy. One of the main focuses of the programme is trade facilitation. UNECE SPECA is one of the main platforms in the region, particularly when it comes to soft infrastructure and its digitalisation. Countries have adopted roadmaps leading to the UN/CEFACT standards implementation. Besides, UNECE provides technical expertise, solutions, and conducts capacity-building activities for relevant stakeholders along the corridor. In November 2023, a Roadmap for the Digitalisation of Multimodal Data and Document Exchange along the TCTC using United Nations Legal Instruments and Standards was adopted by all SPECA member states at the SPECA summit.
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN ESCAP)
UN ESCAP has a Regional Action Programme for Sustainable Transport Development in Asia and the Pacific for the period of 2022-2026. The Programme has 8 priority areas, decarbonisation of freight transport, building freight transport resilience, and transit transport connectivity are among them. ESCAP also developed the first regional roadmap on smart transport systems.
The Organisation of Turkic States (OTS)
Transport cooperation is one of the priorities for the Organisation of Turkic States. The co-operation is based on the two main documents: Turkic World Vision – 2040 and the OTS Strategy for 2022-2026. The workplan includes such aspects as: e-Permits among the member states and observants and e-CMR. In November 2024 the launch of the Union of Associations of International Road Carriers in the Turkic Region (OTS-URTA) was announced aimed at advocating the interests of road carriers, fostering dialogue between states and representatives of the private sector.
Unified Railway Law (URL)
The Unified Railway Law is a system that seeks to create a unified framework, potentially replacing OSJD (SMGS) and OTIF (CIM). URL is a framework created by UNECE to address risks associated with rail freight operating under two different systems, reduce operational delays and legal uncertainty, lower administrative costs and enhance competitiveness of rail transport compared to other modes of transport. It introduces a single legal regime with a single consignment note. Under URL, it will also be possible to include other modes of transport in the single consignment note.
Insufficient co-ordination undermines reform results
Despite numerous joint initiatives at the regional level, the lack of co-ordination hinders progress. Documentation requirements are not harmonised across countries, resulting in duplicated border procedures, and in delays in digitalisation initiatives. The integration of certain countries into organisations that others choose not to join creates additional obstacles. For example, while alignment with EAEU standards and regulations can facilitate trade among EAEU member countries, sometimes these requirements contradict international conventions, specifically affecting the implementation of systems such as e-TIR. The private sector extensively notes so-called dozvoly (transit permits) as a major obstacle to trade and transport (Box 2.4). Another example is the e-TIR, the implementation of which is lagging in Kazakhstan and the Kyrgyz Republic due to inconsistencies in transit document requirements between e-TIR and EAEU standards. Other regional discrepancies also hinder progress. Kazakhstan’s non-adherence to the e-CMR protocol discourages neighbouring countries that have adopted the protocol from fully implementing it, posing difficulties given Kazakhstan’s central role in regional transport and transit infrastructure. Similarly, Uzbekistan’s adoption of EU weight and dimension standards, while a positive step towards international alignment, has resulted in a lack of harmonisation with all other Central Asian countries surrounding it, which have not adopted these standards.
In Central Asia, dozvoly (permits in Russian) are the basis of the regulatory framework governing cross-border freight transport. Quotas for the exchanges of the permits are negotiated annually between governments and regulate the number of cross-border trips allowed. The dozvoly are issued by national transport authorities and are required for each cross-border freight operation. The system covers different types of operations, with bilateral permits allocated for direct trade between two countries and transit permits allocated for cargo going through a country to a third destination.
Beyond the limited number of available permits being a major barrier towards the facilitation of trade between Central Asia countries, private sector respondents report several other issues related to the system. Indeed, the process of allocating dozvoly, as well as their pricing, are opaque. In the year end, some companies or countries can run out of permits, thereby halting logistic operations. The problem of insufficient supply is persistent and was widely noted by private sector representatives across all countries of the region. Additionally, the prices of dozvoly are subject to “greedflation” as companies tend to re-sell the excess permits they hold, thereby contributing to additional increases in the cost of shipping.
Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan have already implemented digitalised e-permits to streamline transit procedures and increase transparency. However, the digitalisation of permits does not solve other structural issues such as the quota system, despite providing some welcome transparency to the procedure.
Source: (Azernews, 2025[44]), OECD analysis.
Corruption and protectionist measures hamper regional trade
Gaps in the regulatory framework coupled with low legal awareness among market participants, creates significant opportunities for corruption and inefficiency. The private sector consistently notes the absence of a clear legal structure defining the roles and responsibilities of carriers, freight forwarders, and cargo owners, leading to widespread uncertainty regarding rights and obligations. This ambiguity results in frequent documentation errors, missing paperwork, and extended delivery times as parties must correct mistakes, thereby increasing bureaucratic hurdles and opportunities for corrupt practices.
Protectionist measures in the region further hinder the efficiency of the TCTC. Private sector respondents report practices such as mandatory hiring of local drivers and truck rental at border crossings, restrictions on export permits, and informal fee collection requests directed at foreign drivers. Firms also note inconsistent policies across countries, with some facilitating corridor access for third-country exports while others impose restrictions on them, further complicating regional trade and undermining the corridor’s potential as an efficient transit route.
Several obstacles related to customs processes, risk management, and working conditions remain
The uptake of the Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) status remains limited
The Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) status, granted by customs authorities to businesses that meet certain standards of security, compliance, and reliability in the international supply chain, is sparsely used in the region. Obtaining such a status offers benefits such as expedited customs clearance, reduced inspections and simplified procedures for certified operators. It also enhances customs-private sector partnerships and allows to build trust between customs and compliant businesses. In Central Asia, uptake has remained limited due to a variety of reasons, including limited resources and access to information on the benefits of acquiring such status (CAREC, 2023[45]). ITC, with the financial support of the EU and in the framework of its Ready4Trade Central Asia, is supporting the customs authorities and private sector of the region to develop a regional model for the mutual recognition of AEO programmes.
Firms would welcome a comprehensive insurance solution along the TCTC
As regional insurance coverage remains limited (MIG, 2024[46]), companies face significant business risks related to potential losses from unforeseen events. The EBRD had already recommended in its 2023 report that the region should prioritise the introduction of cargo insurance or cargo storage safety requirements to increase inter-operability (EBRD, 2023[47]). Motor insurance penetration remains low in the region, with Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan leading with the more advanced digitised solutions (The Times of Central Asia, 2025[48]).
Respondents express concerns about truck drivers’ working conditions
Despite having laws regulating drivers’ working hours, the private sector reports that many are compelled to work extra hours due to long queues at BCPs and the absence of heated areas to sleep or dine. This makes compliance with labour laws challenging, raises road safety risks due to driver fatigue, and creates room for corruption in cases when the driver has unwillingly gone over his work schedule. Difficult working conditions may explain the region’s persistent lack of drivers, and the recent trend of many choosing to leave to the EU and other regions with better pay and working conditions. Tackling such issues could contribute to making the profession more appealing.
Transport emissions are on the rise in the back of growing traffic, old vehicle fleets and low fuel quality
Public support for green transport remains limited in the context of rising traffic volumes, old vehicle fleets and low fuel quality. This is exacerbated by the widespread use of older, high-emission vehicles and the limited availability of high-quality fuels. For example, in Kazakhstan, approximately 80% of road vehicles are over 10 years old (ITF, 2025[49]). Transport is a major contributor to urban air pollution, significantly impacting cities such as Bishkek, Dushanbe, Tashkent, and Almaty (World Bank, 2024[50]). Additionally, private sector stakeholders highlight barriers to upgrading vehicle fleets, including high interest rates and limited access to cleaner, higher-quality fuels.
Private investment should drive storage space development, but governments could streamline regulations and support the modernisation of existing warehouses
The private sector should be the primary driver of logistics and warehouse space development in the region. However, governments can play a crucial facilitating role by improving the investment climate and streamlining regulatory procedures. In particular, reviewing and simplifying land acquisition and construction permit processes can help reduce costs for investors and accelerate the pace of warehouse development (OECD, 2021[51]). Governments could also consider supporting the modernisation and retrofitting of existing warehouse facilities. Upgrading lower-class warehouses to meet modern standards—such as temperature control, automation, and energy efficiency—could be incentivised through targeted measures, including tax breaks, public guarantees or low-interest loans, potentially in partnership with international financial institutions (IFIs). Retrofitting existing warehouses is generally less costly and faster to implement than new construction, as many permitting and foundational requirements have already been met.
Attracting private sector investment in logistics and warehousing ultimately depends on the broader framework conditions supporting private sector development. The establishment of predictable and transparent regulatory frameworks, a level playing field for all firms, and increased market competition are essential. These measures will encourage both domestic and foreign entrepreneurs to invest in and expand logistics operations in the region (OECD, 2023[52]).
The OECD Principles for Private Sector Participation in Infrastructure provide a comprehensive framework to help governments collaborate effectively with private partners in developing critical infrastructure such as transport, water, power supply, and telecommunications. The Principles serve as a checklist for authorities to ensure that infrastructure projects deliver essential services to citizens at fair costs while also offering viable returns to private investors. They emphasise the importance of objective assessments when choosing between public and private provision, considering factors like service delivery, asset condition, affordability, operational efficiency, and sustainability.
To attract private sector investment, the OECD highlights several key requirements:
establishing an enabling policy framework,
ensuring transparent and predictable regulatory environments, and
providing clear mechanisms for risk allocation and mitigation.
Governments are encouraged to conduct thorough cost-benefit analyses, maintain open communication with private partners, and build institutional capacity to manage complex projects. Additional measures include protecting investor rights, offering dispute resolution mechanisms, and ensuring fair competition between private and state-owned enterprises. By addressing these areas, governments can create the stability and confidence needed for private entities to commit capital and expertise to long-term infrastructure investments.
Source: (OECD, 2007[53])
Eliminate restrictive transit permit quotas (dozvoly)
Central Asian governments should reform the transit permit system to improve transparency and remove structural barriers to cross-border trade. The current quota system for transit permits (“dozvoly”) creates artificial limits and unpredictable availability, disrupting logistics and increasing trade costs. Governments of the region should publicly disclose allocation criteria and pricing to prevent anti-competitive practices such as inflated resale of permits (“greedflation”), while pursuing the full elimination of quotas as a structural reform in the longer term. In case eliminating them is not possible, they could advance interoperable electronic permit systems (e-dozvoly) to streamline trade procedures. While digitalisation enhances procedural clarity, it cannot substitute for structural reform: removing quotas remains the primary step toward efficient and integrated regional transport.
Consider developing a regional insurance solution
Central Asia governments should consider regulatory harmonisation to align insurance standards and allow the mutual recognition of insurance policies. The absence of a unified regional transport insurance solution in Central Asia reflects persistent structural and regulatory challenges. Insurance markets in the region remain fragmented, with each country maintaining distinct legal frameworks, technical standards, and enforcement practices. This fragmentation is compounded by low public trust in insurers, limited insurance culture, and underdeveloped digital infrastructure needed to facilitate the identification and recognition of such documents. As a result, respondents to the OECD survey mentioned high transaction costs, inconsistent coverage, and limited access to reliable insurance products, impeding regional trade and economic integration.
Improve truck drivers’ working conditions
Governments could prioritise the development of basic rest areas along major transport corridors to improve the working conditions of truck drivers in the region. These facilities need not be elaborate; even simple, secure parking zones equipped with clean sanitation facilities, potable water, and sheltered spaces for rest would represent a significant improvement over the current situation. Such rest areas can be established through public-private partnerships or by leveraging existing infrastructure, such as service stations or logistics hubs, to minimise investment costs. Additionally, providing free or low-cost Wi-Fi access at these locations would enable drivers to remain updated on weather conditions on their route or other important developments that may affect their journey. Such measures would not only improve drivers’ quality of life but also support road safety and the efficiency of road transport in the region (European Transport Workers' Federation, 2025[54]).
Truck drivers should also be provided with a dedicated module on administrative and legal matters within truck driver training programmes. This module should equip drivers with a clear understanding of their rights and obligations, as well as the legitimate scope of government agency requirements, thereby helping to reduce opportunities for corruption and enhance legal awareness among the workforce (ITF, 2022[55]).
Consider low-cost, high-impact measures to reduce the carbon footprint of transport
Private-sector respondents highlighted financial constraints to modernise ageing truck fleets in Central Asia. Governments of the region could consider providing incentive schemes to accelerate the uptake of low-emission vehicles and use of cleaner fuels. Among the most cost-effective measures are the removal of regulatory barriers to the import of low-emission vehicles and improving access to finance through the establishment of dedicated credit lines for fleet renewal (ITF, 2025[49]). In addition, harmonising fuel quality standards and vehicle dimension regulations across Central Asian countries would help reduce inefficiencies in fleet utilisation and lower emissions. Such regulatory alignment would also facilitate cross-border freight operations and improve the overall competitiveness of the transport sector (ITF, 2022[55]). Some Central Asian countries are in the process of upgrading fuel standards, but these are not yet compliant with EU fuel standards.
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← 1. Advance ruling – the rules and processes applying to prior statements by the administration to requesting traders concerning the classification, origin, valuation method, etc., applied to specific goods.
← 2. “Soft” (non-physical) infrastructure, unlike “hard” (physical) infrastructure, includes a number of intangible components, such as trade and transport policies related to trade in services, regulations, and procedures. It provides long-term conditions for the development and stable operation of the entire system, ensuring institutional linkages at the policy and procedural levels through the regulation and harmonisation of rules.