This chapter examines the impact of digital, green, and managerial transitions on the HR function in France and across EU and OECD countries. The digital transition affects skills across the workforce, drives demand for specialised expertise, and accelerates the digitalisation of HR processes. The green transition requires new competencies, integrates environmental considerations into roles, and sees efforts to reduce public sector emissions. The managerial transition highlights the need to strengthen managers’ role as HR actors and to better structure managerial career paths.
Developing a Resilient HR Function in the French Public Service
Addressing Digital, Ecological and Managerial Change
Abstract
The public service is currently facing several major transitions that are profoundly reshaping its missions and ways of operating. These transitions involve a gradual shift from one state to another, often accompanied by uncertainty and change. Significant examples include the ageing of the population and workforce, the acceleration of digitalisation, the green transition and the emergence of new managerial practices.
However, across OECD Member countries, 44% of respondents report having little or no trust in their national government, and many express scepticism about how their government manages the most complex public policies (OECD, 2024[1]). Similarly, at EU level, 58% of respondents consider that things are going “in the wrong direction” in their country (European Commission, 2024[2]). This situation is forcing administrations to consider the practical implications of these developments: Where do we start? Where do we want to go? And above all, how can we build a clear and shared strategy to move forward, while supporting public servants and securing progress?
The answers to these questions are part of a broader transformation dynamic. On the one hand, they require public sector transformation, aimed at modernising government action to better meet citizens’ expectations, strengthen the effectiveness of public services, and adapt to changes in society. On the other hand, they call for a transformation of the public service itself, to evolve its organisation, ways of operating and managerial culture. This internal transformation is essential to enable the public service to act as a driver of public sector transformation, and requires, in particular, a transformation of the HR function to support these transitions.
This means gaining a better understanding of how each transition affects the HR function and how the HR function can best support each transition. This section analyses the missions that the HR function undertakes to support these transitions, including those that transform its own practices. It explores how the actors of the HR function adapt, structure their actions and deploy the appropriate tools to support the evolution of professions, skills and public administrations (Figure 2.1).
Source: Authors’ elaboration.
The digital transition is profoundly transforming the way public administrations operate (OECD, forthcoming[3]). For several years, governments have been investing in digital tools to improve the effectiveness, quality and transparency of public policy. The COVID-19 pandemic acted as an accelerator, forcing the rapid adoption of technologies that made it possible to maintain essential services and innovate in response to the crisis. Digitalisation is now no longer seen merely as a means of optimisation, but as a strategic lever to strengthen resilience, responsiveness and public trust. This transformation directly affects the HR function, which must itself evolve to support public servants in these shifts. It requires ensuring that all public servants possess basic digital skills and securing a strong digital workstream, while digitising HR processes themselves.
2.1.1. Identifying and developing public servants’ basic digital skills
Situation across EU and OECD Member countries
Digital tools are now widespread across public administrations. Whereas in the late 1990s they were limited to a few specific positions, all public servants now use them to some extent on a daily basis. This evolution continues to be fuelled by the transformation of working environments and growing expectations for digital public services, which can enhance user satisfaction (OECD, 2024[1]). The COVID-19 pandemic profoundly altered ways of working, accelerating the adoption of remote working and flexible working arrangements, where possible, in central administrations (OECD, 2023[4]). Furthermore, the rapid spread of artificial intelligence (AI), the questions it raises, and the ways in which it is (or is not) used within public administrations, are transforming the nature of tasks and redefining the skills required (OECD, forthcoming[3]). Finally, depending on the initial investment required, current budgetary constraints may push administrations to automate certain functions in order to optimise costs. In this context, proficiency in basic digital skills appears to be a prerequisite for ensuring the effectiveness and resilience of public services.
Digital transformation therefore creates new HR requirements, both to ensure a common baseline and to support adaptation to emerging technologies. This involves providing general training for all public servants in basic digital skills, more targeted support, in particular for local managers, and regular updates to training offers to reflect the latest technological advances. Identifying the required skills is the first step in managing and developing basic digital skills. To this end, the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre has developed a competence framework, DigComp, which identifies information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, safety, and problem solving as five areas defining digital competence (Vuorikari, R., Kluzer, S. and Punie, Y., 2022[5]). Identification of the relevant skills must be accompanied by efforts to upgrade competences in these areas, in particular through dedicated training courses. Such training aims to prevent a digital divide within administrations, which often remains generational: across the EU, 44% of 55-64 year olds have at least basic digital skills, compared to 64% of 25-54 year olds (Eurostat, 2024[6]).
In France, growing awareness of the importance of digital skills
In France, the development of digital skills among public servants is mainly steered by the Inter-ministerial Directorate for Digital Affairs (Direction interministérielle du numérique, DINUM) through its Public Digital Campus (Campus du numérique). The DINUM’s roadmap identifies this as one of its four strategic priorities, with the aim of strengthening these skills not only within the digital workstream but across the public service as a whole. This project comes at a time when, according to the 2023 Digital Barometer of Public Employees, 51% of public servants say they would like to receive training in the professional uses of digital technology, particularly collaborative tools and basic IT equipment functions. The Public Digital Campus also uses Pix, a tool for assessing and developing digital skills based on the DigComp framework, to support employees of the State public service to develop a common digital culture, in line with the DGAFP’s 2024-2027 master plan for lifelong professional training for State employees (DGAFP, 2024[7]). This framework aims to provide a minimum skills baseline, guide training plans based on standardised assessments, and enhance the performance, effectiveness and employability of employees. More than 140 000 public servants have already completed a Pix course within the State public service or elsewhere. Central and decentralised administrations will be responsible for operational deployment, co-ordinated by their HR, training or digital transformation departments.
However, the dissemination of digital skills within the public service currently faces structural and organisational limitations. To date, it is only possible to confirm that 40 000 employees have been trained via the MENTOR platform, as aggregated tracking is not available due to the multiplicity of HRIS and ministerial learning management systems (LMS). The target of 100 000 employees trained by 2025 therefore appears difficult to achieve. Two main obstacles hinder this dynamic: on the one hand, the disparity in access-to-training policies, with access often subject to management approval, limits the widespread uptake of basic digital skills; on the other hand, securing the engagement of public servants already in post remains challenging in the absence of mandatory training requirements. Faced with these constraints, the Public Digital Campus is considering a strategic shift to focus its efforts on new entrants from public service schools (écoles de service public), who are considered more receptive and more likely to subsequently disseminate these skills within government departments.
Managers also play a key role in this dynamic, notably through annual performance appraisals. They are well-positioned to identify the needs of their teams, encourage participation in training, and foster an environment conducive to learning. However, while 86% of OECD Member countries consider digital skills training to be one of the five priority training areas for non-managers, only 51% of countries identify it as such for managers (OECD, 2023[4]). This difference can create a gap in expectations and limit the impact of training policies. In France, the upskilling of top managers has recently been addressed through a programme co-ordinated by the DINUM and the Public Digital Campus. The training programme for 200 top managers and senior public service leaders in the State public service includes a module dedicated to digital technology, combining acculturation sessions, visits to innovative ecosystems and masterclasses. The aim is to embed a strong digital culture at the highest level of the administration. In addition, the advanced digital programme (cycle supérieur du numérique) at the Institute of Public Management and Economic Development (Institut de la gestion publique et du développement économique, IGPDE) is aimed at top managers in the State public service and seeks to develop their digital skills and capabilities, train them in new, more agile methods, and raise awareness of the latest technological developments and their impact on the role of the State. Of the 220 central administration directors, 205 have already received training on these issues.
The IGPDE also offers a professionally oriented learning stream in “digital technology, innovation and creativity” designed to enable the various actors (public servants, managers, communications officers, etc.) to better understand the main digital challenges in the administration, learn about how AI operates, discover the uses and fields of data science, and address a range of other topics. The IGPDE’s training offer is structured around several focus areas in order to meet the needs and specificities of each audience: digital acculturation, creativity, web, multimedia, and responsible digital technology. It also organises annual Digital Days, with the sixth edition in June 2025 dedicated to AI.
Despite these ambitious initiatives, several challenges remain. The interviews conducted suggest that HR departments remain relatively generalist, with limited expertise in digital issues, such as the development of AI. Mobilising them on these issues therefore remains difficult in a context of limited resources and competing priorities. Better targeting of training for public servants, through segmentation of profiles based on their level of digital skills and the impact of the digital transition, could facilitate the roll-out of digital training provision. This is all the more necessary given that the rapid evolution of digital tools and AI requires regular updating of skills. It is therefore essential to put in place mechanisms that enable public servants to periodically update their knowledge, through generalist modules and specific training courses, which are regularly updated on platforms such as Mentor.
2.1.2. Developing proactive policies to structure the digital workstream
Situation across EU and OECD Member countries
Beyond basic digital skills, the profound technological shifts associated with the digital transformation of the State require a structured digital workstream, bringing together professionals specialising in the fields of digital technology, data, IT infrastructure and cybersecurity. Structuring such a workstream aims to ensure co-ordinated management of professions, skills and career paths in order to respond in a consistent and sustainable manner to the needs of the public service. While the degree of structuring of this workstream varies from one country to another, strengthening it is a strategic priority for public administrations, which face specific challenges in terms of attractiveness (OECD, 2023[8]). Among OECD Member countries, 76% report difficulties in attracting data specialists, 73% in attracting technical IT professionals, and 64% in attracting experts in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) (OECD, 2021[9]). Competition from the private sector, which has more established communication channels for advertising vacancies, generally more flexible pay scales and career paths that are clearer to the public, can hamper administrations’ capacity to fill certain key positions.
These challenges in attracting professionals from the digital sector have a range of consequences. First, the lack of in-house digital talent can increase dependence on specialist consulting firms, representing a significant cost for the administration. For example, nearly three-quarters of the EUR 890 million paid by the French government to consulting firms in 2021 was for IT services (Cour des comptes, 2023[10]). Although it is not feasible in the short term to bring all of these services back in-house, extensive outsourcing, while it may meet ad hoc needs or provide specific expertise, also carries risks including loss of internal skills, increased dependence on service providers and a weakening of strategic control over major digital projects. In France, Circular No. 6391-SG of 7 February 2023 on the steering and management of use of professional IT services (circulaire relative au pilotage et encadrement du recours aux prestations intellectuelles informatiques) aims in particular to establish a mechanism for steering and managing government expenditure on professional IT services (Premier ministre, 2023[11]). Furthermore, in a context of rising cyber threats, the consolidation of a strong public digital workstream is increasingly seen as a matter of digital sovereignty.
This situation is forcing the HR function in all EU and OECD Member countries to rethink certain processes in the context of an open and competitive global labour market rather than a closed public employment market. This reflection must be conducted jointly with IT and operational departments, which are the primary managers of digital profiles. It may lead to the exploration of more flexible ways of recruiting and working together, such as short-term mission-based contracts, partnerships with the private sector or academia, or inter-ministerial talent pools that can be mobilised on a project basis (see Section on “The digital transition in Austria: Attracting specialised profiles” in Annex A).
In France, structuring of the digital workstream underway
In France, the DGAFP and the DINUM play a leading role in strengthening the digital workstream by structuring the conditions for attracting, recruiting and retaining digital talent. This is illustrated by the 2024 update of the digital professions remuneration framework by the DGAFP, the DINUM and the Budget Directorate (Premier ministre, 2024[12]). The new framework updates the occupational nomenclature, revises remuneration levels by replacing ceilings with pay brackets that reflect the experience and profile of each employee, and introduces a variable component of up to 20% of the base salary, based on level of responsibility and autonomy. These changes aim to create a clearer, consistent and competitive framework, while harmonising practices across administrations. However, given the levels of the pay brackets and limited budgetary resources, ministries face difficulties applying the framework and fully appropriating it in practice.
Retention of employees in this workstream remains a key concern for all actors of the HR function. Given that retaining staff makes it possible to build internal capabilities over the long term and reduce the costs associated with new recruitment, it could be useful undertake a comprehensive review of staff turnover in this workstream, which is generally higher than among public servants overall. Digital profiles are evolving in a dynamic job market, where varied experience and mobility are drivers of career progression. Public service decision-makers and HR professionals therefore need to consider whether the objective should be to retain digital sector employees at all costs, or rather to adapt workforce management to shorter tenures, by promoting time spent in public administration as a high-impact career stage. In France, such an approach would mean building on departures through structured feedback and maintaining an active link with former employees, for example through networks or talent pools that can be mobilised as needs arise.
Furthermore, retraining public servants for professions in the digital workstream is a clear policy priority, but one that remains difficult to structure at the inter-ministerial level. The Public Digital Campus is currently leading several targeted pilot initiatives in support of certain ministries. The “Digital Strategy Advisor” career pathway is an example of these efforts: it has enabled geomatics specialists from the Ministry of Ecological Transition to move into internal consulting roles in digital strategy and information systems, thereby reducing the need for outsourcing. These initiatives highlight the potential for retraining in job categories that are already closely related to digital technology. On the other hand, retraining large numbers of public servants from declining administrative professions would require a genuine whole-of-government strategic workforce planning approach, based on a shared vision of future needs and co-ordinated resources, which remains difficult to achieve.
In addition, despite structural challenges, the DINUM’s role in the development of the digital workstream has grown stronger over time. Since 2023, its roadmap has included the creation of an “HR department for the government’s digital workstream” with a threefold mission: to strengthen mobility and career paths, to lead the Public Digital Campus, and to guide initiatives on attraction and remuneration of this workstream. However, the French Supreme Audit Institution (Cour des comptes) recently identified significant challenges in this department, stemming from the combination of its specific functions with the DINUM’s internal HR management (Cour des comptes, 2024[13]). Furthermore, the allocation of institutional responsibilities between the DINUM, given its role, and the DGAFP, as the government’s HR department, could be more clearly defined and recognised.
Managers in this digital workstream are also key to ensuring the attraction and retention of digital profiles. Several studies show that these profiles tend to have expectations regarding managerial culture that are closer to those in the private sector: agility, autonomy, accountability and project-based work (Gerson, 2020[14]). To meet these expectations, managers in the digital workstream and those overseeing digitalisation projects must be trained in these management codes, understand the motivational drivers of these employees, and be able to offer them a stimulating working environment. This requires stronger support for managers in their own digital acculturation, as well as HR tools adapted to these new management practices, for example through the publication by the DGAFP of a dedicated issue of the Boussole du manager (“Manager’s Compass”), co-developed with the DINUM. It also calls for simplification of administrative procedures and work organisation to meet the expectations of these digital profiles, who may be accustomed to lower levels of bureaucracy in the private sector.
In a context of fierce competition with the private sector, a more dynamic approach to managing digital talent is required. This involves developing internal and external talent pools, accelerating recruitment procedures, and structuring career paths that incorporate training and mobility considerations. The designation of digital HR focal points within public administrations could address these issues and strengthen inter-ministerial collaboration in this area. At the ministerial level, within the Ministry of the Armed Forces, General Secretariat for Administration (Secrétariat général pour l’administration), the Directorate-General for Digital Technology (Direction générale du numérique), and the Human Resources Directorate exchange on a regular basis to improve responses to these challenges. This co-ordination is made even more necessary by the specificity and scarcity of certain digital professions within the newly established Digital Defence Commission (Commissariat au numérique de la Défense) and the Armed Forces general staff (État-major des armées).
2.1.3. Supporting the digitalisation of the HR function through a strengthened centralised HRIS and the emergence of artificial intelligence
Situation across EU and OECD Member countries
The digital transformation of public administrations relies heavily on the increased digitalisation of HR tasks. In particular, automation and the deployment of HRIS simplify day-to-day administrative management (headcount, payroll, leave, training monitoring, evaluation) while facilitating data collection and analysis. In a context where 91% of OECD Member countries have centralised data on employee numbers but only 54% on staff mobility, HRISs are a key instrument for developing a more forward-looking and evidence-based approach to workforce management (OECD, 2024[15]). These tools can, in particular, strengthen strategic workforce planning by better anticipating staff departures and identifying skills needs, or improve employee experience through smoother and clearer processes. They also have the potential to enable HR departments to refocus on support to staff and organisational development, in particular by reducing repetitive and time-consuming tasks. However, this is not automatic and must be accompanied by a comprehensive review of the missions and tasks of HR professionals.
Moreover, artificial intelligence (AI) could profoundly transform the way HR are managed in public administrations. AI is attracting growing interest from HR professionals, whether for analysing large volumes of data, recommending training, or even automating certain aspects of some HR processes. Such use of AI can allow more targeted and automated approaches, but it also raises significant legal, ethical and philosophical challenges. The deployment of AI in HRM must be regulated to prevent bias, guarantee the protection of personal data and ensure maximum transparency of algorithms and decision-making criteria. Some OECD Member countries, such as Ireland and the United Kingdom, have developed guidelines on the use of AI in public administration. However, these guidelines rarely address its use in HRM. In Canada, the Public Service Commission has issued guidance on the use of generative AI in the hiring process. The guidance highlights key considerations when defining qualifications, drafting job advertisements, communicating with candidates, developing assessment tools, and administering evaluations. It emphasises that hiring managers remain accountable for decisions at every stage of the process (Public Service Commission, 2026[16]).
In France, increasing digitalisation of the HR function
In France, the digital transformation of the HR function is driven in particular by the DGAFP through the five-year strategy for government HRISs (2023-2027), which is structured around five priorities: consolidation of the HR base, skills-based management, dematerialisation of services, data control and interoperability of the government’s HR ecosystem (DGAFP, 2022[17]). This strategy is supported by the CISIRH, which steers the inter-ministerial HRIS RenoiRH. Despite a gradual scaling up since its creation in 2022, with the integration of several ministries such as Culture, Agriculture and the Prime Minister’s Office, only 400 000 files are currently managed through RenoiRH, out of a total of 2.54 million public servants in the State public service (DGAFP, 2024[18]). This is due to the continued use of other free-standing tools in ministries with large workforces, such as the Ministry of the Armed Forces, the ministries in charge of economy and finance (MEFs), the Ministry of the Interior and, to a certain extent, the Ministry for Education. This fragmentation hinders the use of HR data and complicates strategic analysis across government.
HR departments, which are primarily responsible for implementation of the five-year strategy, are therefore tasked not only with mastering relatively technical HRIS tools, but also with fully leveraging the data collected. The development of skills-based HRM, the automation of certain processes, and the dematerialisation of each individual employee’s administrative file require upgrading the skills of HR staff. In particular, this involves strengthening the analytical and digital skills needed to shift from an approach primarily focused on administrative management to a more strategic function geared towards steering, talent management and contributing to government transformation. However, certain aspects of the digitalisation of HR systems remain incomplete. For example, while employee performance appraisal records added to individual files continue to be attached in PDF format, the data they contain are rarely structured in a way that supports a detailed mapping of skills. More than 60 different forms coexist, and only a few include a section dedicated to this purpose. Moreover, the lack of an integrated system prevents the automatic extraction of essential metadata, such as recruitment timelines or turnover rates. This limits the potential of these tools for developing data-driven strategic workforce planning, which could guide decisions on modifying certain existing HR policies.
Managers often remain peripheral users of HRIS tools, despite their essential role in the day-to-day team management and HR policy implementation. They report an increase in administrative tasks that encroach on their core responsibilities: steering teams, individual support and collective performance. This trend risks creating a sense of loss of purpose or overload, particularly if these essential tools are perceived as burdensome or ill-suited to their daily operations. Reconciling the demands of HR modernisation with managers’ expectations requires clarification of their role in the HRIS ecosystem. This entails identifying the features that are relevant to them, simplifying their user experience wherever possible, and designing tools that support their managerial missions. This relies in part on a clear balance between delegation, autonomy and refocusing managers on team leadership.
Finally, although emergence of the issue of AI use in HRM is very recent in the context of the digitalisation of the HR function, it features in the abovementioned five-year strategy for government HRISs, led by the DGAFP. In line with this initiative and as part of its HR foresight mission, the DGAFP has begun to consider how AI can be used in an ethical, transparent, responsible and secure manner. In 2024, it developed a strategy for the use of AI in HRM within the State public service (DGAFP, 2024[19]). The strategy, which resulted from collaborative work with the DGAFP’s national, European and international partners and discussions within the Conseil d’orientation des politiques des ressources humaines (Human Resources Policy Steering Committee, CORH), identifies the potential impacts of AI in various HR areas such as attractiveness and recruitment, staff management, training and skills development, retention and engagement, performance and management, and working conditions and the prevention of psychosocial risks. It lays the groundwork for practical trials, structured around key principles relating to the protection of public servants and the administration, human-in-control, and ethics. In particular, it calls for upgrading of HR professionals’ skills in the short term so that they can use AI appropriately and effectively, based on field experience and needs, with full awareness of its benefits and potential risks. Recognising that AI is a matter for social dialogue, the DGAFP has initiated discussions with trade unions, within the framework of a dedicated working group, on the conditions for its deployment in the public service.
At the same time, several ministries have initiated reflections and are experimenting with use cases. For example, since 2024, the General Secretariat of the MEFs (secrétariat général des MEF) has been conducting an HR study on the impact of AI on investigation and oversight professions, in collaboration with the National Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation (Institut national de recherche en informatique et en automatique, INRIA) and LaborIA, an action-research laboratory focused on the impact of AI in the working environment. These initiatives are at the pilot stage and there has as yet been no decision to scale them up. Similarly, the Ministry of the Armed Forces, led by the Ministerial Agency for Defence AI (Agence Ministérielle de l’IA de Défense, AMIAD), has recently published its guidelines for the use of AI in HR, aimed at organising the development and scaling up of AI use cases, prioritised around four major areas: recruitment, administrative management, skills management and training. This document is part of the ongoing dialogue with civilian staff unions, initiated in 2024 by the Ministry’s HR Department on the subject of trustworthy AI.
The green transition represents a major challenge for public administrations, at both the strategic and organisational levels. While nearly 70% of citizens in OECD countries believe that combating climate change should be a priority for their government, only 42% express confidence in their country’s ability to reduce greenhouse gas emissions over the next decade (OECD, 2024[1]). Bridging this gap between expectations and results requires equipping the public service with the capabilities needed to design, steer and implement effective climate policies.
For the HR function, this involves two distinct levels of intervention: general awareness-raising among all public servants to foster a shared understanding of the green transition, and the acquisition of specific skills by those whose roles can directly contribute to environmental objectives. While the first level aims to strengthen understanding of and commitment to climate issues, the second requires the capacity to design, implement and evaluate practical measures for climate adaptation or emission reduction. This also requires HR departments to lead by example, contributing to decarbonisation by identifying relevant HR areas and ways to reduce their carbon footprint and adapt to climate change. This dual approach helps to embed environmental issues in the practices of public servants on a long-term basis and to better align public policy with national and international commitments on the green transition. Moreover, these efforts must be accompanied by a transformation of public administrations themselves, which must become exemplary and environmentally responsible, both in their day-to-day operations and in their procurement, mobility and resource management processes.
2.2.1. Educating and training public servants on the challenges of the green transition
Across EU and OECD Member countries
The green transition requires administrations to engage all their employees, both to align public policy with climate commitments and to adapt work practices to new priorities. Educating public servants on the challenges related to the green transition means strengthening a shared understanding of climate risks and policy tools available. This is not merely a matter of occasional awareness-raising, but of integrating environmental issues into public servants’ mindsets, work practices and daily decision-making. This approach enables each employee, regardless of their profession or hierarchical level, to understand their role in the necessary transformations and to act consistently with the objectives of the green transition.
This dynamic is part of a general trend observed across OECD and EU countries. For several decades, governments and the EU have strengthened their international climate commitments, particularly following the Paris Agreement, which marked a turning point by setting clear targets for reducing global greenhouse gas emissions (United Nations / Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2015[20]). In this context, the public service plays a key role in developing and implementing green transition policies, and public administrations are seeking to integrate the green transition and its implications into their skills, methods and priorities. This is particularly evident in schools of government, nearly 50% of which offered training related to the Sustainable Development Goals in 2022 (OECD, 2022[21]).
In France, education on the challenges of the green transition at an advanced stage
In France, the DGAFP and DIESE are leading various initiatives to develop skills related to the green transition. The master plan for lifelong professional training for State employees includes an entire focus area on mobilising all public servants to become active participants in the green transition (DGAFP, 2024[22]). One of the priorities identified is to train managers on environmental issues so that they can integrate these considerations into their managerial decisions and practices. Between 2022 and the end of 2024, 25 000 senior public servants received training on the green transition. This 28-hour training programme consisted of workshops, conferences and field visits to NGOs, public administrations and companies engaged in the green transition. The programme now seeks to extend this awareness-raising to all public servants.
However, extending such training to all public servants remains difficult, particularly for positions without managerial responsibility or those not directly involved in the green transition. This can be explained by three main factors: capacity, as training all public servants represents a significant investment for HR departments; prioritisation, as this training may compete with other areas of training for public servants; and finally, targeting, as the programme may not be suited to the diversity of professions in the State public service. To partially overcome these difficulties, key actors are organising inter-ministerial awareness-raising events and developing partnerships with academic and research institutions (such as the National Centre for Scientific Research [Centre national de la recherche scientifique, CNRS]), in order to enrich educational content and offer courses tailored to different public servant profiles.
This awareness-raising is supported by several initiatives led by ministries, and within them by HR departments, aimed at strengthening awareness of environmental issues. This includes the adaptation by ministries of the master plan for lifelong professional training for State employees into ministry-specific training plans that reflect their particular needs. The Ministry for Education has included this priority in its 2025-2029 learning and development plan, with a focus on involving every employee in the green and digital transitions, implemented at the territorial level through academic training plans. Additionally, certain directorates, such as the Department-level Joint General Secretariats (secrétariats généraux communs départementaux, SGCD) for Lot-et-Garonne and Gironde, have integrated environmental objectives into individual performance appraisals, marking a cultural shift in management of public servants. Similarly, in 2022, the MEFs launched the Tous acteurs de Bercy Vert (“Acting together for a green Bercy”) initiative to encourage all ministry staff to engage in reducing the carbon footprint of public services in order to achieve green transition objectives, through consultation, communication, provision of tools, and support for their initiatives. Two hundred projects were submitted, 88 were selected, and these received EUR 500 000 in funding from the transformation fund. The initiative was recognised as an “eco-responsible public services” scheme and included in the inter-ministerial report by the General Commission for Sustainable Development (Commissariat général au développement durable, CGDD). A new call for projects was launched in 2024.
Finally, training managers on environmental issues is not only aimed at imparting knowledge, but also developing managerial skills and priorities in order to better engage teams around issues related to the green transition. This means providing all managers with the tools necessary to integrate environmental objectives into planning, evaluation and change management. Over time, managers trained in these issues can become key to the dissemination of the green transition throughout government operations, provided the practical implications of the training are identified.
2.2.2. Integrating a green dimension into public service professions and anticipating new skills requirements
Across EU and OECD Member countries
Integrating a green dimension into public service professions means adapting the roles of public servants to environmental priorities. This adaptation involves identifying the various roles that can focus on the green transition, by redirecting certain tasks or skills towards environmental considerations and challenges. The extent to which a job is transformed to meet the imperatives of the green transition therefore depends on the share of its tasks that can be reoriented to incorporate a green perspective, ranging from the addition of an environmental lens of analysis to the complete transformation of activities and the emergence of new professions. This approach makes it possible to distinguish between the job, defined as a codified administrative function, and the associated tasks or roles, which can evolve more quickly to incorporate new requirements related to the green transition. Thus, the same job can be partially or totally transformed by the green transition, depending on the extent to which its missions can make a tangible contribution to the environmental objectives of the public authorities and systematically integrate environmental impact considerations into administrative action.
Trends observed across EU and OECD Member countries confirm this dynamic (see Section on “The green transition in Italy: The Mille Esperti programme to attract specialised profiles into the public administration” in Annex A). Certain professions now incorporate foundational environmental dimensions, particularly in the areas of procurement and budgeting, for example through the consideration and assessment of the climate impact of public policies. Other new professions are emerging in response to specific needs related to climate resilience, the deployment of renewable energies, the circular economy and green finance. These changes call for a rethinking of strategic workforce planning.
In France, identification of the green transition’s impact on professions to be strengthened
In France, the DGAFP has undertaken initial work to identify the professions relevant to the green transition. The RMFP currently lists 41 professions directly related to the environment and 59 related to urban planning and sustainable development out of a total of 1,069 professions. While this initial mapping provides a useful foundation, it is not sufficient to capture the evolution of professions required to contribute more actively to the transition. Furthermore, at this stage, it does not allow the green dimension to be integrated into other professions and functional areas of the public service. One of the major challenges is therefore to link this identification exercise with concrete strategic workforce planning measures, while avoiding an overly exhaustive and cumbersome approach that would involve reviewing each job task by task.
Some administrations have launched pioneering initiatives in this area. For example, the Departmental Directorate for Territories and the Sea (Direction départementale des territoires et de la mer, DDTM) of Pyrénées-Atlantiques conducted a review of its professions to identify their “greening potential”. However, the DDTM’s environmental specialisation makes this approach difficult to transpose to other administrations that are less directly exposed to environmental issues. Furthermore, few administrations have so far incorporated these results into their job frameworks, limiting the impact of these initiatives on HR practices.
To move forward pragmatically on a larger scale, it may be useful to distinguish three main categories of jobs according to their potential level of contribution: professions entirely directed towards the green transition (e.g. climate experts); professions partially related, for which an environmental perspective can significantly transform job content (e.g. public procurement or planning); and professions less directly related, but for which an environmental perspective can be gradually integrated. This graduated framework can help to better guide training priorities, mobilise competency frameworks, and strengthen the capacity of all public servants, regardless of their field, to consider the environmental impact of their work.
2.2.3. Making public administrations environmentally responsible and adaptable to climate change
Across EU and OECD Member countries
As major employers in EU and OECD Member countries, public administrations have a responsibility to set an example in participating in the green transition, encompassing both mitigation (reducing the carbon footprint) and adaptation (solutions to cope with climate change). Their carbon footprint is not limited to the public policies they steer; it extends to their day-to-day operations, including the design and use of workplaces, as well as the habits and travel patterns of public servants (SG REFORM, 2025[23]). Reducing the environmental footprint of the public service thus contributes directly to national climate objectives, in addition to sending a strong signal to other sectors of society. Given their direct link with public servants, HR departments are often responsible for supporting these efforts and addressing the implications they may have for personnel management.
The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated that certain organisational adaptation measures, such as remote working, can generate environmental benefits, although these must be weighed against the environmental costs of increased use of digital resources (Agence de l'environnement et de la maîtrise de l'énergie, 2024[24]; Tao et al., 2023[25]), and lead to broader reflection on workplace use. Remote working is now an option in public administrations across all OECD Member countries and is available to all public servants in 61% of them (OECD, 2023[4]). At constant staffing levels, this flexible way of working results in reduced office use and daily commuting. Many administrations are considering rethinking and reorganising the use of workplaces, with 39% of OECD Member countries planning to strengthen flexible office arrangements, 31% aiming to create shared inter-departmental spaces, and 28% developing strategies to reduce the space occupied (OECD, 2023[4]). At the same time, some administrations have implemented policies to minimise the environmental impact of public servants’ travel, both between their homes and their workplaces and during professional travel.
In France, innovative approaches but ongoing questions about the direct role of the HR function
Based on the observation that central and decentralised administrations accounted for between 1.5% and 2% of the national carbon footprint in 2019 (across transport, 46%, public procurement, 30%, and buildings, 24%), France developed the “eco-responsible public services” scheme. This strategic transformation framework aims to reduce the carbon footprint of the public administration and is led by the CGDD, with support from inter-ministerial actors such as the DGAFP (Gouvernement, 2024[26]). By 2027, it plans to reduce the government’s greenhouse gas emissions by 22% compared to 2022 levels, and to reduce the energy consumption of public buildings by 25%. A circular adopted on 21 November 2023 formalises these commitments through fifteen priority actions (Première ministre, 2023[27]). It identifies several policy tools linked to the HR function, such as the roll-out of remote working, the reduction of professional travel, and the widespread adoption of carbon-free commuting, in particular through increased use of carpooling and cycling. In addition, the introduction of greenhouse gas emissions assessments across government provides a useful tool for monitoring greening efforts (Code de l'environnement, 2025[28]).
However, beyond these specific policy tools, the involvement of the HR function in these efforts remains relatively limited. Responsibility for implementing these measures lies primarily with dedicated departments that operate alongside HR departments. For example, in 2023, the General Secretariat for Administration of the Ministry of the Armed Forces created the Sub-directorate for Environmental Risks and Sustainable Development (Sous-direction des risques, de l’environnement et du développement durable) within the Directorate for Territories, Real Estate and the Environment (Direction des territoires, de l’immobilier et de l’environnement). This entity is responsible for co-ordinating and leading the Ministry’s green transition policy, in co-operation with all relevant actors. This dynamic was further strengthened in 2024 with the adoption of a “Sustainable Defence” strategy for the period 2024-2030, which now constitutes the ministerial policy framework on the green transition. It is structured around thematic strategies covering energy, water, biodiversity and waste, supplemented by a cross-cutting green transformation plan developed as part of the “eco-responsible public services” scheme. However, this level of leadership and progress on the green transition driven by a dedicated unit remains rare across public administrations.
HR departments remain more involved in organising working arrangements, which can have a direct impact on the environmental footprint of public administrations. Remote working, initially deployed on a large scale in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, is a key cross-cutting tool in greening strategies. It now applies to one in three employees in the State public service (excluding teachers) (DGAFP, 2025[29]). The agreement on the implementation of remote working in the public service, concluded between public employers and trade unions, provides a framework for its implementation across the three branches of the public service (Journal officiel, 2022[30]). It is based on four principles: voluntary participation, alternating between on-site work and teleworking, reversibility of arrangements, and access to appropriate digital tools. It also encourages the appointment of a remote working advisor in each HR department, responsible for supporting employees and managers and, where relevant, monitoring implementation of local remote working agreements. It seeks to make public employers accountable, particularly HR departments, which, in co-ordination with managers, are responsible for identifying positions suitable for remote working, providing the necessary equipment and overseeing work organisation. However, given the constantly evolving nature of these factors, such accountability requires dedicated resources.
Despite their capacity to support the green transition within administrations, remote working and flexible working arrangements more broadly can pose significant challenges for all HR actors. Remote working changes the dynamics of collective work, raises questions about the role of management, and can create tensions within teams, particularly between generations or between newly recruited employees and more senior staff. Since 2019, the DGAFP and the Inter-ministerial Directorate for Public Transformation (Direction interministérielle de la transformation publique, DITP) have developed a series of practical guidance notes for managers and public servants to support the development of remote working as a sustainable way of organising work (DITP, 2019[31]). The DGAFP has also published an issue of the “Manager’s Compass” devoted to new forms of work organisation and management, with specific insights into new working arrangements and practical tools to enable local managers to embrace these changes (DGAFP, 2025[32]). In addition, the ministerial remote working agreement signed by the MEFs in July 2021 provides, under Article 9, for the creation of a fund to support the roll-out of remote working, with an annual budget of EUR 3 million.
However, meeting these new demands on managers remains challenging. The shift toward hybrid forms of work requires them to strike a delicate balance between flexibility and equity, while maintaining team cohesion, ensuring fair monitoring of staff, and preserving an inclusive working environment. As remote working is set to remain a permanent feature of public administrations, this is a new role for many managers, which – beyond the guidance material available – requires strengthened support and dedicated spaces for reflection and the sharing of practices and experiences. To this end, a community of ministerial remote working advisors, led by the DGAFP, was created in April 2025 on the Resana digital platform, providing a forum to exchange best practices, documents, studies, and legal opinions related to remote working. In addition, the Inter-ministerial Fund for the Improvement of Working Conditions (Fonds interministériel pour l’amélioration des conditions de travail, FIACT), created in 2018 and managed by the DGAFP, has supported several projects aimed at testing and supporting remote working (promoting the collective expression of needs, objectively determining compliance with the right to disconnect). Feedback and best practices are published in the HR initiatives library managed by the DGAFP and accessible to all public servants (DGAFP, 2023[33]).
Public administrations are facing major challenges that require the modernisation of practices and managerial support. Changing expectations among candidates and employees, the transformation of ways of working, and the increased empowerment of managers are forcing a review of traditional managerial approaches in the public service. This transition involves moving beyond a model that is still heavily shaped by hierarchy and vertical decision-making to a more participatory form of management that promotes collaboration and project-based working. It also requires HR actors to provide greater support to managers in this transition by helping them to develop new skills and clarifying the responsibilities expected at each level of the hierarchy. The diversity of profiles and hierarchical levels makes this transition even more gradual than the others. To be successful, it requires clarifying collective expectations of management, while defining responsibilities tailored to each level and each managerial role.
2.3.1. Supporting the evolution of the role of managers as actors of the HR function
Across EU and OECD Member countries
The role of public service managers is changing rapidly, driven by the transformation of management methods and the rise in user expectations of the public sector. In addition to steering public policy, they are now required to become key actors of the HR function. This means supporting skills development, enhancing attractiveness and engagement, actively participating in recruitment processes and creating working environments that promote co-operation and innovation. In a context where public servants increasingly expect meaningful work, autonomy and high-quality local management, this change is crucial to retaining talent (OECD, 2023[8]). This calls for both increased support and a degree of autonomy for managers themselves.
Across EU and OECD Member countries, the ability of administrations to offer management based on trust and empowerment contributes to attractiveness. However, the diversity of managerial profiles and cultures makes this complex. At each hierarchical level, from local managers to executive managers, roles are evolving, particularly with the introduction of responses to the other major transitions (see Section on “The managerial transition in Estonia: Leading and managing structural change” in Annex A).
In France, ongoing reflection on the leadership required in the public service
In France, the role of local managers is no longer limited to implementation and supervision. They are now expected to ensure team cohesion, resolve day-to-day issues and relay HR initiatives. For example, local managers help identify skills needs, contribute to defining recruitment profiles, carry out staff performance appraisals and recommend promotions. Regular dialogue with HR departments makes it possible to better align operational needs with HR policies. To support this change and strengthen these functions, the DGAFP has developed several tools, such as guides on recruitment and management, which provide practical pointers on various topics, including work organisation, remote management, social dialogue and change management (DGAFP, 2021[34]; DGAFP, 2017[35]), as well as various issues of the Boussole du manager and practical guidance notes for local managers (DGAFP, 2022[36]; DGAFP, 2022[37]). Another example of such support is the initiative Imaginons ensemble l’avenir des services publics de l’État en région Grand Est (“Together let’s imagine the future of State public services in the Grand Est region”) (Préfecture de région Grand Est, 2021[38]). Under this initiative, managers worked with the DITP’s Lab’Est to co-develop tools and frameworks for sharing best practices and reflecting on their managerial approaches in a complex environment.
The role of middle and executive-level managers is also changing, marked by increased involvement in communication and dialogue with citizens, as highlighted during the health crisis. These developments raise questions about support for these managers and clarification of their responsibilities. The transformation of managerial practices goes beyond the acquisition of technical skills: it also concerns the ability to lead, bring people together and embody a culture of co-operation. Initiatives such as the Manager Campus (Campus du manager) led by the Ministry of the Armed Forces, or the MERCI intergenerational mentoring programme within the MEF, contribute to breaking down silos by bringing together the experiences of managers with longer tenure and the expectations of younger generations.
Aimed at all managers, the DGAFP has introduced the “high-quality management” initiative, which is designed to support central and decentralised government departments in evaluating and improving their management practices. With a focus on organisational and collective aspects, it complements existing schemes centred on individual development and leadership. Based on a structured diagnosis using an analytical framework, it enables the objective identification of each department’s strengths and areas for improvement and the development of an action plan aligned with internal priorities. The initiative has been piloted in 17 entities and will be rolled out on a voluntary basis from the third quarter of 2025. Such an approach can be a useful tool for better assessing the quality of management in the public service.
However, for changes in the role of managers to become a reality, they must be accompanied by areas of genuine autonomy. Today, the managerial culture in the public administration remains highly structured by hierarchical approaches and a dense procedural framework. This can be explained in part by the requirements of transparency, accountability and continuity that are specific to the public service. This organisational model limits initiative-taking and contributes to a dilution of responsibilities, which hinders practical ownership of HR missions. The specific requirements of the public service should not prevent the development of more clearly defined areas of autonomy, without every decision having to go through the entire hierarchical chain. Such a change would not only increase the effectiveness of public services but would also strengthen the motivation of local and middle managers by demonstrating greater trust in them.
Incorporating these changes in managerial missions and practices into day-to-day management also means recognising and valuing them in performance appraisal processes. In France, performance appraisal remains primarily focused on the achievement of public policy objectives, without necessarily paying as much attention to increasingly crucial cross-cutting dimensions, such as team leadership, change management and the development of co-operation. Recent developments are nevertheless moving in this direction. Decree No. 2022-720 of 27 April 2022 provides for a collegial evaluation of top management by public employers at least every six years. This evaluation aims not only to assess achievements, but also the quality of work practices, the need to strengthen or diversify skills, and the ability to assume higher-level responsibilities. This system is now in place in all ministries, as well as at the inter-ministerial level for senior public service leaders (appointed by the Council of Ministers). In addition, the DIESE has developed an inter-ministerial framework for managerial skills. It is now used by all public employers for the evaluation and recruitment of top managers, executive-level managers (cadres de direction) and senior public service leaders.
2.3.2. Strengthening strategic management and professionalisation of managerial careers
Across EU and OECD Member countries
In many public service models, access to managerial responsibilities remains an almost mandatory step for career progression. However, motivation to take on these responsibilities varies from one employee to another. Management is still too often seen as a necessary step rather than a fully accepted choice. This situation raises two major challenges for the HR function: ensuring that managers have the necessary skills, and offering them career development and learning opportunities tailored to their profiles.
Many EU and OECD Member countries report limited attractiveness of management positions. The responsibilities involved, such as hierarchical pressure, administrative workload, or managing teams under strain, can discourage candidates, especially in a context where expectations of managers are increasingly high. Although quantitative data remain limited at this stage, the difficulty in generating interest in management roles is a warning sign shared by several administrations. It calls for decisive action to clarify the role of manager, strengthen support and recognise management as a function in its own right.
In France, uneven support for top managers, executive-level managers and senior public service leaders
In France, senior public service leaders have access to proactive, individualised support, which is progressively implemented and goes beyond the mere administrative management of their careers. The DES, co-ordinated by the DIESE, support senior public service leaders throughout their careers by facilitating management reviews, professionalising recruitment processes and enabling access to diverse mobility opportunities. The DIESE also offers a wide range of training modules and development schemes, including the Advanced management development programme (Cycle supérieur de développement managerial, CYSDEM) for future executive-level managers, the Advanced studies in public service programme (Cycle des hautes études de service public, CHESP) for future senior public service leaders, as well as seminars, coaching, onboarding support and a six-yearly “career path” evaluation. These measures aim to increase the visibility of the career paths of senior public service leaders and the support they receive, and to consolidate their professional trajectories.
Support for other categories of managers remains more uneven across administrations, notably depending on occupational fields and the geographical distribution of staff. While it is essential to value professional expertise, it is equally important to recognise cross-functional skills, particularly soft skills and the ability to lead a team. More attentive management of managerial career paths and aspirations could help to make these roles more attractive and improve the quality of public service management.
For local and middle managers, the managerial transition raises questions about the balance between professional expertise and management duties, as career paths often remain structured around hierarchical progression. To address this issue, several measures have been put in place to offer public servants greater flexibility and choice. For example, the Directorate-General for Competition Policy, Consumer Affairs and Fraud Control (Direction générale de la concurrence, de la consommation et de la répression des fraudes, DGCCRF) has developed so-called “Y-shaped” career paths, allowing inspectors to choose, at a certain stage, between a managerial track, focused on team management, and a technical track, focused on expertise. While still limited to a small number of career paths, this approach can facilitate the identification and preparation of employees who are motivated to take on management roles. At the same time, the development of pools of potential managers, as exist in some administrations, helps foster the emergence of profiles with a genuine interest in management. It is important that these schemes are perceived as chosen and supported career paths, rather than as a mandatory step for career progression. Within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, this approach is reflected in the six-yearly evaluation approach based on a managerial and professional competency framework developed by the DGA/DES in line with DIESE guidance. Structured around 16 sections divided into five areas (strategy and design, action and delivery, embodiment of values, management, and professions and areas of expertise), it takes account of the Ministry’s specific characteristics, including the versatility of career paths, geographical mobility and understanding of otherness, thereby reinforcing the professionalisation and recognition of management.
At the same time, horizontal mobility is key to strengthening management of managerial career paths. It prevents managers from remaining in the same position for too long, which can lead to stagnation of practices and hinder critical distance. By diversifying experiences, mobility offers the opportunity to acquire new skills, adapt to other organisational contexts and broaden understanding of public policy challenges. When accompanied by a change of administration, it also contributes to the development of a more inter-ministerial management culture, fostering the dissemination of common practices and breaking down organisational silos. However, this shared culture must remain flexible enough to take account of the specific leadership expectations associated with different positions, whether in central government, decentralised departments or cross-cutting functions.
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