Building core literacy, numeracy and digital skills in the first phase of upper secondary education in Northern Ireland

3. Policy issue 1. Enabling all students to develop and demonstrate their knowledge and skills

In Key Stage 4 (ages 14-16) in Northern Ireland, teaching and learning is shaped by qualifications, which determine students’ timetables. Consequently, the main vehicle for engagement with maths, English and digital skills is via preparing for, and sitting, assessments and examinations. Qualifications at this stage are critically important for young people, as they serve as gatekeepers to many post-16 options.

Policy issue 1: Developing and demonstrating knowledge and skills

The expectation that all students take the same GCSEs in English and mathematics aims to support equity and inclusion. However, current qualifications do not meet the needs of all students – notably, students who start Key Stage 4 with weaker skills.

Option 1: Provide guidance for schools on the most appropriate qualifications for students with weaker skills in Key Stage 4

• Northern Ireland schools currently have significant institutional autonomy over the courses students take. National guidance could recommend which qualification options are best suited for students with weaker skills.

Option 2: Introduce a proficiency-based assessment for literacy and numeracy

• In the longer term, Northern Ireland could explore a proficiency-based assessment for literacy and numeracy that would become the main signal for whether students have the skills needed for progression to post-16 qualifications.

3.1. Qualifications shape engagement with English, maths and digital skills at 14‑16

While not technically mandatory, the vast majority of students complete English and maths GCSEs (national qualifications typically taken at ages 14-16). For example, more than 95% of school leavers took English and maths GCSEs in 2022/23. English and maths GCSEs are gateway qualifications to the next level of study, with school sixth forms (schools which enrol students in Years 13 and 14) and further education colleges (post-16 education institutions) expecting students to have at least five GCSEs at A*‑C, including maths and English, for entry to many programmes. Maths and English GCSE results also play a central role in national reporting and accountability (see Policy Issue 3) (NI Dept. of Education, 2024[16]).

3.1.1. Qualifications tend to support subject-specific skills and knowledge for further study

Each GCSE subject must serve the needs of a varied group of students. For some it must be a stepping stone to vocational qualifications at 16-18 and employment post-18. While for others it must provide the foundations for further study at A Level. The difficulty for GCSEs to serve and cater to the diverse needs of different students can be most acutely observed in subjects that are taken by the full cohort of students – principally English Language and maths. Discussions with teachers and school leaders revealed a widespread feeling that GCSE Maths focuses on developing knowledge and skills needed for A Level progression, rather than broader mathematical or numeracy skills like estimating value or understanding and using data.

The structure of qualifications at Key Stage 4, organised by individual subjects, means that broader functional skills and knowledge do not always have an explicit place in students’ timetables. In some schools, teachers purposefully build cross-curricular learning on concepts like functional digital skills into their subjects. However, not all students may have teachers or schools who take steps to ensure cross‑curricular learning. More importantly, it means that some students who need functional numeracy and literacy skills do not receive explicit instruction in them.

3.1.2. There are no mandatory requirements for digital skills in Key Stage 4

Few students take digital skills qualifications in Key Stage 4; this was the case for just 15.7% of Year 12 (age 16) students in 2023/24.1 While digital skills as a subject is common in Key Stage 3 (ages 11-14), Key Stage 4’s qualification-driven timetabling means students engage in few non-examined subjects, physical education and religious education being the typical exceptions. Digital learning can and is integrated into other subjects, and most schools provide some digital skills content through well-being or student development programmes during form time or in student assemblies. However, these practices are at schools’ and teachers’ discretion.

The Digital Technology GCSE also illustrates the challenges of attempting to cater to diverse student groups. The qualification covers both specialist content related to programming and multimedia skills, and generalist content, such as the importance of regular software updates (CCEA, 2017[21]). With the broad span of specialist and generalist content topics, and the two discrete strands (programming and multimedia skills), the Digital Technology GCSE aims to serve quite different functions for different groups which is challenging within a single qualification.

3.2. Current qualifications leave some students without accessible routes to demonstrate achievement

It is important that all students engage in robust and rigorous programmes of learning in maths, English and digital skills that support them to reach their full potential. This is particularly the case for students who enter upper secondary with lower performance and who need a well-structured programme, guided by high aspirations and expectations, to accelerate their learning and achieve at nationally expected levels. There are several reasons why the current GCSE design does not meet these demands.

3.2.1. By design, a Grade C at GCSE is not an achievable benchmark for the full cohort

Pass grades at GCSE range from A* (the top grade) to G. Only a Grade U, meaning ungraded, is technically considered a “fail” (CCEA, 2022[22]). However, Grade C is often seen to represent the level of achievement that students need to progress in a subject, and which indicates that they have demonstrated baseline skills. One reason for this is that access to post-16 qualifications and even employment often requires achievement of Grade C (nidirect, 2025[23]). Reporting of school performance also focusses on the share of students achieving GCSEs at A*-C (NI Dept. of Education, 2024[16]). Consequently, while there are other grades below it, Grade C is often interpreted as a “pass”. However, only a largely pre-defined share of students can achieve a Grade C every year. This is because GCSE grade outcomes are designed to be roughly consistent year on year to maintain standards and fairness with roughly the same number of students achieving A*-C Grades every year (JCQ, n.d.[18]) (Ofqual, 2025[24]).

Northern Ireland’s qualifications face the challenge of how to strike an appropriate balance between ensuring and maintaining standards and providing accessible routes that build the skills and knowledge of all students and recognise their achievements. Qualifications that everyone achieves are unlikely to be seen as credible tools for selection purposes by higher education institutions or employers. However, qualifications that set a bar that some students do not achieve may fail to recognise that all students have valuable skills and knowledge that can contribute to their economy and society. Most systems strike this balance by placing achievement requirements at the end of schooling, rather than having progression criteria part-way through upper secondary.

3.2.2. Current qualifications do not meet the needs of all students

While the focus on Grade C in Northern Ireland provides a valuable and visible target, in any system it would be challenging to ensure all students meet this benchmark by 16. Even in the highest performing education systems, some students do not demonstrate skills at Level 2 in PISA, the level at which it is considered students have the baseline proficiency to participate fully in society (OECD, 2023[25]; OECD, 2026[26]). For students performing below Level 2 in PISA, it is likely to be highly challenging to develop the foundational skills to achieve Grade C in GCSEs in English Language and maths by age 16. There are similar shares of students in Northern Ireland who do not achieve Grade C in GCSE Maths and English Language as those performing below Level 2 in PISA. For example, in 2023/24, 27% of students did not achieve Grade C in GCSE mathematics and 30% performed below Level 2 in maths in PISA 2025 (NI Dept. of Education, 2026[27]; OECD, 2026[26]).

In workshops with the OECD, students, teachers and principals in Northern Ireland shared views about qualifications on offer at Key Stage 4 (Table 1). They were generally positive about the value and utility of available qualifications. However, there was a concern that the current offer does not best support pathways for students less interested in, or ready for, academic subjects – particularly those who would be interested to pursue hands-on learning via an apprenticeship. A consistent concern was that GCSEs cover a lot of content (discussed further in Policy Issue 2). Students struggling with foundational skills may find it difficult to keep pace with the demands of a fast-moving and content-heavy curriculum. Limited time for consolidation or personalised support means gaps in understanding can widen quickly, leaving some students disengaged or overwhelmed.

Table 1. Snapshot on Key Stage 4 Qualifications

Data and comments from school leader, teacher and student surveys in Northern Ireland conducted by the OECD

		How far do you agree that…		Comments
		Qualifications in Years 11-12 enable students to develop important skills for their education, job and life after school	There are interesting and useful qualifications / subjects for all students from 14 to 18 yrs
Teachers and School Leaders (46)	Agree / Strongly Agree	86.9% (40)	60.9% (28)	“Some academic subjects are too challenging … the focus on large amounts of content puts children off choosing … subjects.” “It would be useful if it were possible to deliver a suite of qualifications suitable to those students likely to leave at 16 to pursue an apprenticeship or training.”
	Disagree / Strongly Disagree	6.5% (3)	34.8% (16)
	No response	6.5% (3)	4.3% (2)
Students (34)	Agree / Strongly Agree	97.0% (33)	76.5% (26)	“I really enjoyed KS4 [Key Stage 4] and thought the qualifications were very beneficial for our future.” “My subjects and exams were very worth all the effort.”
	Disagree / Strongly Disagree	2.9% (1)	23.5% (8)

Notes: Numbers of individuals are shown in brackets. Over 9 workshops, the OECD collected data and comments from 18 schools, across two Area Learning Communities. Data is not representative; the OECD engaged with a small sample of schools and students engaged were predominantly on an academic pathway.

Source: Data collected on mission in Northern Ireland, March 2025.

3.2.3. Students with weaker skills do not have appropriately tailored English and maths options

Most OECD countries provide different versions of core subjects, based on ability, prior learning and expected pathways, enabling students to learn and progress at a level that is accessible for them. For example, in Ireland, mathematics is provided at Foundation, Ordinary and Higher levels, with Foundation mathematics emphasising the acquisition and consolidation of fundamental skills (DEY, 2015[28]). This differentiation ensures most students experience success – in 2024, almost all students (97% of students at Ordinary and Higher levels and 95% of students at Foundation level) achieved a Grade 6 or higher in mathematics (SEC, 2024[29]). Having differentiated versions of core subjects also supports varied future pathways as, in the case of maths, different further study, career and life pathways do not draw equally on the same branches of maths (Box 1 discusses similar examples from Western Australia (Australia) alongside the example of Ireland).

To an extent, Northern Ireland does provide some differentiation. For example, GCSE Maths exists at two tiers – foundation and higher – with exam papers designed to provide an appropriate balance of question difficulty and demand (CCEA, 2017[30]; Wilson and Gill, 2014[31]). However, unlike the different levels and/or subjects provided by other systems, the tiers cover the same grading continuum (i.e. foundation maths covers Grades C*-G and higher covers A*-E) and are used for awarding the same qualification. A recent OECD report found that in England (United Kingdom), which has a similar tiering approach to GCSE Maths, both foundation and higher maths GCSEs cover moderate breadth and extensive depth, with limited differentiation between the tiers (OECD, 2024[32]).

Aside from GCSEs, there are other qualifications in Northern Ireland that can be used to develop students’ core literacy and numeracy skills. Essential Skills qualifications in Communication and Application of Number can theoretically be offered to students at Key Stage 4. However, these qualifications were originally designed for adults in college, work or community settings – not for 14-15-year-olds with lower skills (NI Dept. for the Economy, 2019[33]). These qualifications may not be adapted to students’ needs and they may limit students’ future options, since many post-16 qualifications require achievement in GCSEs for entry.

Box 1. Different mathematics levels in Ireland and Western Australia

Ireland: Leaving Certificate options

Mathematics at Higher level is geared to the needs of students who may continue to study mathematics in higher education and greater emphasis is placed on abstraction and generalisation and on the idea of rigorous proof.

Mathematics at Ordinary level is geared to the needs of students who may go on to use and apply mathematics in their future careers and aims to be both meaningful and accessible to students at their present stage of development, by gradually introducing more abstract ideas.

Mathematics at Foundation level aims to show students how maths can be used in many different ways as an efficient system for solving problems and finding answers. As students at Foundation level are not expected to deal with abstract maths, their maths course supports exploration and reflection, encouraging them to make sense of their prior mathematical experiences and solve the types of problems they may encounter in their daily lives.

Western Australia: Certificate of Education options

In Western Australia there are six mathematics subjects ranging from Preliminary to Specialist maths, each fulfilling the requirement of the Western Australia Certificate of Education for students to take mathematics as a compulsory subject. Three of the mathematics options (Specialist, Methods and Applications) contribute to students’ Australian Tertiary Admission Rank (ATAR), used for higher education entrance. For students who do not plan on going to higher education or who start upper secondary with weaker mathematics skills, the “Essential” mathematics course targets using maths and solving problems in real contexts for a range of workplace, personal, further learning and community settings. The “Foundation” course is specifically for students who have not achieved the mandatory Online Literacy and Numeracy Assessment (OLNA), aiming to build their capacity, confidence and disposition to use mathematics to meet the standard set by the OLNA. The “Preliminary” course is specifically for students with Special Education Needs.

Source: NCCA (2013[34]), Leaving Certificate Mathematics Syllabus, https://ncca.ie/en/resources/lc-mathematics-syllabus/; Government of Western Australia – School Curriculum and Standards Authority (n.d.[35]), Mathematics, https://senior-secondary.scsa.wa.edu.au/syllabus-and-support-materials/mathematics (accessed on 26 June 2025).

Research from other systems underscores the importance of differentiated options, especially for those students with lower prior achievement. In Switzerland, where the curriculum students follow depends on the programmes they take, data shows that students with below Level 2 in mathematics in PISA were more likely to successfully complete their upper secondary programme if they entered a vocational programme rather than a general programme (Monitorage de l'éducation en Suisse, 2023[36]). For example, students scoring 300 points in PISA (Level 1a) were about 15 percentage points more likely to complete upper secondary education when they were enrolled in a vocational programme. The greater success of students in the vocational programme may be related to its vocational orientation that was better adapted to their needs – with less of a focus on theoretical/academic knowledge and skills.

3.3. Policy options for creating pathways for all students to develop and successfully demonstrate their knowledge and skills

In Northern Ireland, the expectation that all students take the same GCSEs in English and mathematics aims to support equity and inclusion; all students pursue the same pathway and, subsequently, keep options open for post-16 study. However, the design of GCSEs and A Levels, with grade boundaries that are designed to produce a year-on-year reliable ranking of students, is highly selective in practice. Nearly a quarter of students (23% in 2022/23) finish Key Stage 4 without A*-C Grades in both English and maths. These students may have developed important foundational skills while working towards GCSEs but without A*-C Grades their results have limited value as they navigate transitions to post-16. This significant minority are less able to access qualifications at ages 16-18 and are instead oriented towards equivalent qualifications at Level 1 or 2 on the Regulated Qualifications Framework, or to re-sit GCSEs, before progressing to Level 3. Northern Ireland can consider the following policy options to support better progression and skills development, and fairer recognition of all students’ skills and knowledge.

3.3.1. Provide guidance for schools on the most appropriate qualifications for students with weaker skills in Key Stage 4

At Key Stage 4 in Northern Ireland, there is a strong focus on the attainment of GCSEs, even though not all students are able to achieve “success” (i.e. Grades A*-C) in these qualifications. For some students with weaker skills, the most appropriate option might be achieving qualifications at Entry Level or Level 1 on the Regulated Qualifications Framework (including GCSEs at Grades D-G). However, the range of programmes they can then pursue becomes more limited due to not having GCSEs at Grades A*-C. While there are other qualifications that are equivalently levelled to GCSEs at Grades A*-C, these qualifications have been designed for adults and may not be adapted to students’ needs. At present, schools are individually having to navigate the trade-offs of different qualification options and decide which options are best for their students.

In the short term, Northern Ireland could consider providing national guidance for schools on how to navigate the available qualifications to best meet the needs of students with lower achievement (as part of broader guidance about the subjects students should take, see Policy Issue 2). Such central guidance should ensure that suggested Key Stage 4 qualifications clearly link to post-16 qualifications. In developing such guidance, the country could consider explicitly designing pathways of qualifications so that students with weaker skills can achieve Level 2 English and mathematics qualifications (e.g. GCSEs at Grades A*‑C or other equivalent qualifications) by age 18/19. One option would be students achieving Entry Level or Level 1 qualifications (e.g. GCSEs at Grades D-G) first, at age 16, as intermediary qualifications, before progressing to the next step of English and maths qualifications by age 18/19, alongside vocational qualifications or other subjects. Another option would be some students working towards Level 2 English and mathematics qualifications over a longer timeframe, i.e. four years, with additional time and space to fill foundational knowledge and skill gaps, build confidence through incremental progress and receive more individualised support. Over time, given the complex landscape of qualifications assessing key English and maths skills, Northern Ireland could consider revising and rationalising the qualifications schools offer to best meet student needs.

3.3.2. Introduce a proficiency-based assessment for literacy and numeracy

While the focus on Grade C achievement at GCSE emphasises high standards for all, by design it is not achievable for all students and introduces a high-stakes selection point mid-way through upper secondary. To maintain high standards, while recognising and supporting the progression of all students, in the longer term, Northern Ireland could consider introducing a common benchmark for literacy and numeracy proficiency at the end of Key Stage 4.

Several education systems in OECD countries, including British Columbia (Canada), New South Wales (Australia), New Zealand and Western Australia (Australia), have similar proficiency-based assessments of key skills in upper secondary. Aspects of these assessments particularly relevant for Northern Ireland include:

• Direct assessment of literacy and numeracy skills. Proficiency-based assessments of literacy and numeracy directly assess students’ literacy and numeracy skills, as opposed to subject‑specific content. In Northern Ireland, this would help to create a more relevant assessment for all students, compared with GCSEs which focus on subject-specific knowledge for further study which not all students pursue and creates a heavy content load that is not accessible for all students.

• A clearly defined, proficiency-based standard. A proficiency-based standard focussed on demonstrated skills and knowledge could help to strengthen the focus on ensuring that all students develop functional skills and ensure that those who need explicit instruction at this level, receive it. The proficiency standard might focus on the key skills and knowledge Northern Ireland want all its young people to develop by 18 and which are essential for working life.

• Multiple opportunities to achieve. In Australia, British Columbia (Canada) and New Zealand students have multiple opportunities to take the assessments based on when they and their teachers feel that they are ready. This approach strengthens the focus on achieving proficiency over the course of upper secondary, rather than requiring that all students demonstrate proficiency at the same, predetermined time.

A proficiency-based assessment for literacy and numeracy could replace the role that English and maths GCSEs currently have for signalling whether students have the skills they need to progress to post-16 qualifications. For students who do not achieve the baseline proficiency by the end of Key Stage 4, they should continue to have opportunities to take it and develop their literacy and numeracy skills in post-16 education. Options could also exist for students who do not achieve the benchmark by 18 to continue working towards it once they have left school. Currently, English Language and maths GCSEs serve many functions – simultaneously signalling proficiency in core skills areas, and readying students for further study and work in these subject areas. By decoupling these functions, Northern Ireland could set a proficiency benchmark that is more achievable for all students, and which promotes the functional literacy and numeracy skills all students need for further study and life after school.

Note

← 1.  Data provided by the Northern Ireland Department of Education based on analysis of Exams Databases. 3 883 students (out of a total Year 12 cohort of 24 685) took a range of digital qualifications: CCEA Level 1/Level 2 GCSE in Digital Technology; OCN NI Level 1 Award in Creative Arts and Digital Technologies; OCN NI Level 2 Award in Creative Arts and Digital Technologies; OCN NI Level 2 Certificate in Creative Arts and Digital Technologies; OCN NI Level 2 Extended Certificate in Creative Arts and Digital Technologies; Pearson BTEC Level 1/Level 2 First Award in Creative Digital Media Production; Pearson BTEC Level 1/Level 2 Tech Award in Digital Information Technology.