Education and training providers are increasingly aligning curricula and assessment practices around skills, while employers place growing emphasis on skills in recruitment and talent management. Translating these parallel developments into a coherent, nationwide skills-first approach requires mechanisms that connect the worlds of learning and work and strengthen co‑ordination among the actors involved. This chapter examines four such mechanisms: career guidance, skills passports, recognition of prior learning, and multi-stakeholder collaboration arrangements.
A Skills‑First Labour Market
Abstract
Bridging learning and work is essential for a coherent skills-first approach
Individuals need clear information and targeted advice to navigate labour-market and learning options through a skills lens. Career guidance services play a central role by providing skills-focused information on occupations and learning opportunities, as in Austria and Korea, and by helping individuals identify their skills and interests through self-assessment tools, as in Canada and Germany. Personalised counselling can also support individuals in interpreting information and converting it into informed decisions. For example, Flanders offers career guidance vouchers, while New Zealand provides free career guidance in person, online, and by phone.
Skill signalling, whereby individuals proactively articulate and communicate their skills, is expanding in OECD countries, increasingly supported by digital infrastructure. Governments are developing tools, such as skills passports, that allow individuals to store and showcase information on education, work experience and skills in a single interface. Many of these tools draw on administrative data on employment and training, providing a platform through which verified information can be presented, as in France and Singapore.
Recognition of prior learning (RPL) systems help bridge emerging skills-first practices and existing qualification structures, by validating skills acquired through non-formal and informal learning and translating them into recognised credentials. Yet, while such systems exist in most OECD countries, participation remains limited due to low awareness and complex procedures. In response, some countries, including France, have introduced reforms to increase take‑up.
Implementing a skills-first approach requires sustained collaboration among actors with distinct mandates and incentives, including governments, employers, training providers and individuals. Traditional arrangements include tripartite co‑operation, councils or committees, and programme‑based partnerships, but countries are increasingly establishing dedicated organisations responsible for skills policy implementation and cross-sector co‑ordination, as in Australia, England, and Finland.
A final core component of a skills-first ecosystem is stronger integration between learning systems and labour market practices. Education and training providers are increasingly reorienting curricula and assessments around skills, while employers are placing greater emphasis on skills in recruitment and talent management. Yet in many countries, the link between learning and work remains weak. Occupational standards, qualification registries and training curricula often use different skill languages, making it difficult to translate learning outcomes into job requirements (see Chapter 2). Information is also frequently fragmented. Learning and employment opportunities are spread across multiple platforms, often managed by different ministries, which makes it harder for individuals to navigate their skills journey.
Converting these parallel developments into a coherent, nationwide approach therefore requires mechanisms that connect the worlds of learning and work and strengthen co‑ordination among the actors involved. Career guidance is one important example, particularly when it helps individuals frame their education and career choices in skills-focused terms. Measures that enable individuals to signal their skills to employers, such as skills passports, are another essential element and can be reinforced through public policy. Recognition of prior learning, including the validation of non-formal and informal learning, can further support the transition to a skills-first economy by ensuring that skills are recognised in forms comparable to formal qualifications. Finally, multi-stakeholder dialogue, in its various forms, can play a pivotal role in aligning and co‑ordinating these initiatives, helping to build greater coherence across education, training and labour market systems.
Most adults require clear information and targeted advice to navigate labour market and learning options through a skills perspective. Career guidance services play a critical role in this process by providing skills-focused information on occupations and learning opportunities and by equipping individuals with tools that enable skills-first decision making.
Career guidance refers to services “intended to assist individuals to make well-informed educational, training and occupational choices” (OECD, 2004[1]; 2021[2]). In broad terms, career guidance services can be grouped into three interconnected areas (Figure 5.1). First, they produce and disseminate information on skills required for different occupations and related education and training opportunities. Second, they offer a wide range of self-assessment tools and diagnostic instruments to help individuals identify their strengths, skills, and interests. Third, they provide personalised counselling that supports individuals in their interpretation of labour market information and self-assessment results and in the translation of these insights into tailored advice to support employment outcomes. These services are typically delivered by public employment services (PES) and private providers but are also offered by some education and training institutions and employers.
Source: Authors’ elaboration.
Across OECD countries, guidance systems have traditionally treated formal qualifications and skills development and recognition as equally legitimate routes into employment. Results from the OECD Trends in Adult Learning Policy Questionnaire 2025 indicate that around 80% of the 34 responding countries report that their career guidance systems provide information on both skills development and formal qualifications as pathways into employment (Figure 5.2). Despite this institutional neutrality, career guidance services are increasingly incorporating skills-first elements.
Extent to which career guidance emphasises developing skills rather than obtaining formal qualifications
Note: Responses to the question, “To what extent does career guidance in your country focus on helping individuals understand and develop skills, rather than obtaining formal qualifications?”. The response option “strong skills-first focus” refers to career guidance that primarily emphasises skills development, including recognition of prior learning, micro-credentials, and skills-based career pathways. “Qualification-focussed” refers to career guidance that primarily encourages individuals to pursue formal degrees and certifications, with limited emphasis on alternative skills-building pathways. “Balanced or neutral approach” indicates that career guidance provides information on both skills development and formal qualifications as routes to employment. “Limited career guidance available” indicates that no structured approach to career guidance is in place. OECD countries with available data and Singapore are shown. Data for Belgium refer to Brussels, Flanders and Wallonia.
Source: OECD Trends in Adult Learning Policy Questionnaire 2025.
Facilitating access to labour market information remains a core function of guidance systems, with digital portals playing a prominent role. Austria’s Career Information System (Berufsinformationssystem), managed by the PES, encourages users to explore careers through a skills-first perspective (Austrian Public Employment Service, 2026[3]). Its skills search function allows individuals to identify occupations associated with specific skills. For example, a search for supply chain management skills yields a diverse set of job profiles, including business development managers, industrial engineers, warehouse workers, and wholesale buyers. For each occupation, the system provides information on expected income, current job vacancies, other in-demand skills, and relevant training programmes. Similarly, Korea’s Workpedia provides detailed occupation information, including required skills ranked by importance, average annual salary, job satisfaction and workers’ educational backgrounds (Korean Ministry of Employment and Labour, 2025[4]). CareerNet is a portal that presents Workpedia content in a user-friendly format and complements it with an aptitude test that assesses individuals’ strengths and helps match them to suitable options (Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training, n.d.[5]).
Equally important is supporting individuals in understanding their own skills and interests. Public authorities offer a broad range of skills self-assessment tools, which are often combined with other support mechanisms. These instruments can be embedded within labour market information portals and digital skills passports or incorporated directly into counselling services where professional facilitation enhances interpretation and follow-up. Their primary purpose is to support reflection, for example by helping individuals identify hidden talents and interests, or by suggesting occupations they may not have considered but that align with their skills and preferences. Most tools therefore rely on self-evaluation and are distinct from assessments used in recruitment to measure specific skills (e.g. coding skills), which are discussed in Chapter 4. Other tools, instead, draw on psychometric tests to measure personality traits and cognitive abilities, methods also used in hiring to assess candidate fit.
Some skills self-assessments rely primarily on open-ended questions and strongly encourage the involvement of counsellors. Germany’s ProfilPASS, for example, is designed to help individuals identify skills acquired not only through formal education but also through non-formal and informal learning (German Institute for Adult Education, n.d.[6]). Distributed in a printable workbook format, it guides users through structured reflection on a wide range of competencies, including social, technical, language and artistic skills. Trained ProfilPASS consultants support individuals throughout the reflection and documentation process, and participants receive a certificate of competence,1 following an advisor-supported self-assessment. Introduced in 2006, ProfilPASS has since been adapted for different target groups, including young adults, women, self-employed individuals and migrants, and is now available in more than ten languages.
However, a growing number of self-assessment tools are delivered through online platforms using closed-ended questions. Canada’s Job Bank, for instance, offers a range of career quizzes to help individuals explore their interests, abilities and work preferences (Government of Canada, 2026[7]). The ability quiz consists of around 40 questions in which individuals rate their skills on a five‑point scale. It assesses strengths across several domains, including verbal, numerical and learning ability, manual and finger dexterity, spatial ability and clerical perception. Based on their results, the system generates occupational suggestions that correspond to the assessed skills profile.
In some cases, these approaches are combined and complemented by innovative formats such as game‑based assessments. In Japan, the Job Card framework incorporates a questionnaire based on open-ended questions alongside online self-assessment tools that employ closed-ended questions to identify individuals’ interests and skills (Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, n.d.[8]). Individuals are also encouraged to discuss the results with registered career counsellors to support interpretation and action planning. In the Netherlands, the Passport for Work initiative implemented in Eindhoven targets workers with low educational attainment and integrates a game‑based assessment component to identify skills and interests, while generating outputs that can be shared directly with prospective employers (Box 5.1).
Different approaches to skills self-assessment present distinct advantages and limitations. Tools based on open-ended questions, such as ProfilPASS in Germany, can support a more personalised and nuanced identification of skills, but their effectiveness depends heavily on the availability and expertise of professional facilitators. Online tools based on a fixed set of closed-ended questions, such as those used by Canada’s Job Bank, offer greater standardisation and scalability and can draw on rich labour market data to link individuals with occupations requiring similar skill profiles. However, they may be less effective in encouraging deeper reflection on individuals’ skills and learning experiences.
Looking ahead, advances in large language model technologies suggest potential for integrating open-ended self-assessment responses into structured labour market information in a more standardised way. This could combine the depth and personalisation of reflective tools with the scalability and data richness of digital platforms. Game‑based assessments may further strengthen accessibility and engagement, particularly for users who are less likely to complete traditional questionnaire‑based tools.
Since 2019, the municipality of Eindhoven offers an online tool – Passport for Work – that combines skills assessment and skills signalling functions. The platform aims to increase labour market participation among vulnerable groups, particularly individuals with vocational education backgrounds, and in the construction, technology and healthcare sectors. It provides game‑ and simulation-based skills assessments to strengthen individuals’ self-awareness, identify occupations with closely aligned skill profiles, and highlight suitable training opportunities to address skill gaps. The tool also serves as a skills signalling mechanism, enabling individuals to communicate their skills to prospective employers.
Initial impact analysis indicates that the tool increased jobseekers’ awareness of their skills and broadened their understanding of potential career pathways with similar skill requirements. The evaluation also highlights the importance of engaging a wide range of partners, including the public employment service and organisations working with target groups, to expand outreach and support effective implementation.
Source: Lievens (2023[9]), Passport for Work's Legacy: Journal 4, https://uia.urban-initiative.eu/en/news/passport-works-legacy-journal-4.
Despite growing attention devoted to digital platforms and online self-assessment instruments, the involvement of professional career counsellors remains essential to the effective functioning of skills-oriented guidance systems. Counsellors support individuals in interpreting labour market intelligence and self-assessment outputs, thereby strengthening the analytical basis of upskilling and employment decisions. They also assist individuals in articulating and signalling their skills, for example through the development of CVs and skills passports, as well as by supporting interview preparation.
In Flanders the PES offers career guidance vouchers to jobseekers identified as likely to benefit from personalised support (VDAB, n.d.[10]). Individuals can choose from a range of career guidance providers, some of which specialise in specific target groups, such as highly educated adults, young people, or individuals aged 50 and over. Guidance encompasses identification of existing skills and skills gaps, selection of relevant training where needed, and practical assistance with job search activities, including application preparation and interview coaching. In New Zealand, free personalised career advice from career experts is available face‑to-face, online, and by phone, ensuring broad accessibility (New Zealand Government, 2025[11]). This support helps individuals recognise their transferable skills and how these can be applied in new roles, develop a tailored career and training plan, and improve CVs and cover letters.
Enhancing the visibility of skills allows employers to recruit on the basis of skills and enables individuals to access jobs and training opportunities aligned with their capabilities. This process, through which individuals explicitly communicate their skills, is increasingly referred to as skills signalling. Within a skills-first ecosystem, skills signalling performs a central function by reinforcing the link between skills development and skills recognition.
Skills signalling has expanded across OECD countries in recent years, and individuals increasingly communicate their skills through digital platforms, including social media. Recent analysis drawing on LinkedIn data shows that the share of users adding skill information to their profiles increased from 1.8% in 2018 to 3.3% in 2023 on average across OECD countries (Figure 5.3). In 2023, this share exceeded 4% in Costa Rica, Estonia and Colombia, but remained below 2.5% in Korea, Iceland and Japan. While international comparisons based on a single platform have limitations, particularly due to differences in platform use across countries, the OECD (2025[12]) argues that these cross-country variations may partly reflect underlying labour market characteristics. In Latin America, informal employment is more prevalent, with around half of the working-age population employed informally. This increases reliance on practical experience and informal learning, which may encourage individuals to signal their skills more actively. In East Asia, by contrast, employment structures tend to be more rigid, with lower job mobility and therefore fewer incentives for workers to engage in skills signalling. The same analysis shows that younger adults and unemployed individuals are more likely to add skill information to their profiles than other groups. In addition, the share of individuals signalling skills is higher in the “technology, information and media” and “professional services” industries relative to other sectors.
Percentage of LinkedIn users who add skills to their profile
Source: OECD (2025[12]), Empowering the Workforce in the Context of a Skills-First Approach, https://doi.org/10.1787/345b6528-en.
This trend is likely to accelerate as platforms expand skills signalling features. In early 2026, LinkedIn announced that, alongside existing skills features based on self-assessment and endorsements from others, users would be able to display proficiency in selected AI tools verified by the tool providers themselves (LinkedIn, 2026[13]). Partner companies assess proficiency analysing product usage data and though AI-enabled assessment methods, and issue a certificate that users can add to their LinkedIn profile.
Employers are also increasingly seeking skill information. As discussed in Chapter 1, LinkedIn reported in 2022 that 40% of recruiters used skills data to fill open roles on its platform, an increase of 20% compared with the previous year (LinkedIn, 2022[14]). More recent evidence from LinkedIn recruiter search behaviour shows that, across OECD countries in 2023‑2024, nearly 15% of candidate searches applied skill-based filters, compared with around 2% applying degree‑based filter (OECD, 2025[12]).
Governments have introduced a growing number of policy initiatives to support the documentation, standardisation and communication of skills (Table 5.1). Generally referred to as “skills passports” – although they may appear under different names, such as the Learning and Employment Record in the United States – such instruments enable individuals to record and showcase their education, work experience and skills acquired through formal, informal and non-formal learning contexts. Several of these tools draw on administrative data on employment and training, providing a platform to display verified information. They can be used not only to communicate skills to employers during job search, but also to support exchanges with career guidance professionals and to help individuals identify skills gaps and development priorities when planning future career steps.
Initiatives that support individuals in documenting and communicating their education, work experience and skills acquired across formal, non-formal and informal learning settings
Well-established examples can be observed in France and Singapore, where skills passport initiatives are embedded within broader lifelong learning systems. In France, the Skills Passport forms part of the Personal Training Account (Compte Personnel de Formation, CPF), an individual learning account that provides residents with rights to training entitlements that accumulate over time (OECD, 2025[15]). It offers four core functionalities: “My Career Path”, which compiles professional and training records and is partly pre‑filled using social security declarations and reporting data from training providers; “My Skills”, which maps acquired skills; “My CV”, which enables users to generate a CV using verified official information; and “My Future”, which helps users explore new professional opportunities in light of their skills, potential and career goals (Ministère du Travail, de la Santé, des Solidarités et des Familles, 2025[16]). In Singapore, the Careers and Skills Passport is integrated into the MySkillsFuture portal, a one‑stop shop for lifelong learning services. It features a dedicated skills section that draws on verified skills from completed certifications, employer validation and self-endorsement. The passport also includes sections on employment and on academic and professional certifications, each underpinned by administrative data (SkillsFuture Singapore, 2025[17]).
Other initiatives are more targeted and are often implemented at the regional or sectoral level. California’s Career Passports, for example, aim to help individuals, particularly those without a four‑year degree and veterans, demonstrate their skills and experience more effectively to potential employers (Governor Gavin Newsom, 2024[18]). Focusing on the energy sector, Scotland’s Energy Skills Passport helps workers identify and showcase transferable skills, as well as recognise areas requiring further development in order to facilitate occupational mobility (Scottish Government, 2025[19]).
Skills signalling tools are often paired with skills self-assessment instruments. For example, the primary purpose of Japan’s Job Card is to help individuals better understand their skills and career interests, but it can also be used to demonstrate acquired skills to both current and prospective employers (Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, n.d.[8]). Similarly, the Passport for Work developed in Eindhoven is designed to help jobseekers without higher education demonstrate their skills, and it is accompanied by a gamified skills assessment tool (Box 5.1).
Skills signalling may be particularly beneficial to narrow the gap between skills acquisition and labour market recognition for vulnerable workers. A study based on LinkedIn profile data from the United States covering the period from 2015 to 2021 finds that adding ten self-reported skills to a user’s profile is associated with a reduction in the median duration of employment gaps by around 0.7 months, relative to a baseline median gap of approximately six months. Individuals without formal education listed on their profiles experienced the largest reductions in employment gaps following the inclusion of skills. The study also reports higher returns for the signalling of emerging technology skills, such as robotics and AI, as well as for soft skills (Baird, Ko and Gahlawat, 2024[20]).
The transition to a skills-first economy takes time, and in the interim, recognition of prior learning (RPL) systems can facilitate adjustment by translating the emerging currency of skills into the traditional currency of credentials. RPL refers to the process of validating individuals’ skills acquired through formal, non-formal or informal learning and awarding full or partial qualifications, certifications, or academic credit. The term “recognition” is often used interchangeably with “validation” (Meghnagi and Tuccio, 2022[21]).
RPL has become a standard policy instrument across OECD countries and beyond, with its importance firmly established in the policy landscape for over a decade. The Council of the European Union, for instance, adopted a Recommendation on the validation of non-formal and informal learning in 2012, calling on Member States to establish national validation systems (Council of the European Union, 2012[22]). This political momentum is reflected in practice: according to the OECD Trends in Adult Learning Policy Questionnaire 2025, over 80% of the 34 responding countries report having a national RPL system in place, and nearly 60% report that it is implemented universally or substantially (Figure 5.4).
RPL systems can be designed to support both employability and lifelong learning. The most tangible objective, reported by more than two‑thirds of countries with an RPL system, is to award full or partial qualifications, or equivalent credentials (Figure 5.5). More than half of countries use RPL to enhance employment prospects by translating non-formal and informal learning into credentials, with the aim of improving the signalling of candidates’ skills in recruitment. In around 45% of countries, RPL is intended to shorten the duration of formal education by recognising acquired knowledge and skills and exempting learners from parts of the curriculum. RPL can also facilitate entry to education programmes by granting exemptions from admission prerequisites on the basis of prior learning. Taken together, these processes can help learners, education and training providers and career guidance practitioners to identify skills gaps and training needs.
Note: Responses to the question, “To what extent have recognition of prior learning and validation of skills been implemented nationally? ”. OECD countries and jurisdictions with available data, as well as Singapore, are shown.
Source: OECD Trends in Adult Learning Policy Questionnaire 2025.
Note: Responses to the question, “What are the main objectives of your country’s RPL system?” (multiple responses allowed). Total valid responses: 28.
Source: OECD Trends in Adult Learning Policy Questionnaire 2025.
In most countries, national RPL procedures build on existing instruments, such as national qualifications registers or occupational standards, drawing on the skills descriptors embedded in these frameworks (see Chapter 2). For instance, in Czechia, the system for validating non-formal and informal learning is structured around the National Register of Qualifications, which includes around 1 500 full and partial vocational qualifications (Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport of the Czech Republic, 2026[23]). A full qualification is composed of several partial qualifications, each with clearly defined learning outcomes in terms of knowledge and skills. Individuals may obtain certification by successfully completing examinations for these (partial) qualifications. Assessment is competence‑based and typically involves a combination of oral and written tests and a practical demonstration of the skills and competencies specified in the qualification and assessment standards. In Colombia, the Evaluation and Certification of Labour Competencies service is organised around Sectoral Standards of Labour Competence (National Training Service, 2026[24]). The National Training Service assesses individuals’ occupation-specific knowledge and skills against these standards and awards a certificate of professional competence upon successful completion. In India, an RPL framework implemented under the skill certification scheme Pradhan Mantri Youth Training Program is based on both the National Skills Qualification Framework (NSQF) and the National Occupational Standards (NOS). The process typically includes counselling to identify relevant job roles within the NOS that match an individual’s prior knowledge and skills, followed by a pre‑screening stage that involves submission of supporting documentation and self-assessment. Candidates then complete a mandatory 30‑hour orientation and, where needed, additional training to address identified skill gaps. The final assessment evaluates the skills defined in the NOS and results in certification mapped to the NSQF (Government of India, 2024[25]).
Despite widespread institutionalisation, participation rates in recognition of prior learning remain modest in many countries. Barriers include limited awareness of RPL among potential beneficiaries and lengthy and complex procedures. Countries therefore continue to reform and strengthen their RPL systems. In response to these challenges, France recently initiated a reform of its longstanding system for the Validation of Acquired Experience (Validation des Acquis de l’Expérience, VAE), which was first introduced in 2002 (République Française, n.d.[26]). A centralised online information portal, France VAE, was launched in 2023 to facilitate access to information and the online submission and management of applications. A dedicated professional role described as a career guidance architect was created to support candidates throughout the process. In addition, financial constraints were addressed through eligibility for funding via the French individual learning account (CPF).
Even though RPL procedures result in qualifications and certifications, their operational logic remains grounded in skills-first approaches. In practice, RPL functions as an extended form of skills assessment, in which individuals’ competencies are measured against established standards and converted into formally recognised credentials. In this sense, RPL acts as a bridge between skills and qualifications, enabling skills acquired outside formal education pathways to become visible and portable within credential-based systems. RPL also reflects the skills-first spirit of widening opportunities for a broad range of individuals. For example, it can support access to regulated occupations for migrants trained in different systems, enable mid-career workers with lower levels of educational attainment to demonstrate job-relevant skills, and help adults with fragmented educational histories convert prior learning into recognised credentials.
The skills-first ecosystem encompasses a wide range of actors whose mandates and interests differ substantially. Governments play a central role, yet responsibilities are often distributed across multiple ministries, notably education and labour. Co‑ordination across ministries is not always seamless, with implications for policy coherence and implementation efficiency. Beyond ministries, a variety of public bodies are involved, including public employment services and quality assurance agencies. Employers are also critical actors, but their priorities, resources and levels of engagement vary significantly between sectors and firm size. Individuals, typically represented by trade unions, are at the centre of skills-first policies, yet their needs and pathways for skills development are highly diverse. Education and training providers are equally essential, but they often operate within segmented institutional domains encompassing VET, higher education, and non-formal learning. Other important stakeholders include career guidance practitioners and civil society organisations.
The effective implementation of a nationwide skills-first strategy depends on structured dialogue and collaboration among this wide range of stakeholders to support coherent adoption and minimise fragmentation across policy domains and operational settings. While co‑ordination across this diverse landscape remains challenging and no single governance model fits all contexts, countries are taking steps to strengthen multi-stakeholder collaboration through a range of institutional arrangements (Figure 5.6). The most traditional approach relies on tripartite co‑operation among government authorities, employers’ organisations and trade unions. In parallel, some countries have established councils or committees that provide a forum for dialogue on skills policy, while others have created dedicated organisations responsible for skills policy implementation and cross-sectoral co‑ordination. Programme‑based partnerships, such as targeted adult learning initiatives, are also widely used.
Across OECD countries, collaborative arrangements have emerged not only through government leadership but also through initiatives driven by labour market partners and training providers. This diversity of origins reflects differences in governance traditions and institutional capacity. Depending also on which actors are involved, collaborative structures make use of a wide range of instruments, including national skill strategies, government decrees, targeted funding mechanisms, and systems for the collection, analysis and dissemination of skills intelligence. In some cases, multi-stakeholder dialogue leads to the development of these instruments, while in others, the instruments themselves serve as a mechanism to bring stakeholders together.
Source: Authors’ elaboration.
Tripartite governance involving government, employers’ organisations and trade unions remains one of the most widely established models for co‑operation. In Denmark, for example, a tripartite agreement on adult learning was most recently signed in 2023, with an annual earmarked budget of DKK 360 million (approximately EUR 50 million) (Eurydice, 2026[27]). The funds are intended to ensure that the workforce is well equipped for current and future labour market needs, and support a range of initiatives, including a national programme aimed at strengthening basic skills.
Building on this foundation, many countries have also established dedicated councils and committees focused on skills policy co‑ordination and strategic oversight, often involving education and training providers. In Norway, for instance, several co‑ordination bodies with skills-related mandates operate alongside tripartite arrangements. The Skills Policy Council was established in 2017 following the Norwegian Strategy for Skills Policy 2017‑2021, with responsibility for monitoring the strategy’s implementation (Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2025[28]). Its mandate was renewed in 2022, and its membership includes representatives from five ministries, social partners, municipalities, and organisations representing adult learning, higher education and VET. Complementing this structure, the Norwegian Committee on Skills Needs undertakes skills assessment and anticipation studies and provides skills data and analysis that inform the deliberations of the Skills Policy Council.
A similar multi-stakeholder approach underpins skills policy co‑ordination in Germany. The National Continuing Education Strategy is jointly led by the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs and the Federal Ministry of Education, Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth (German Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, n.d.[29]). It brings together 17 partners, including the federal states (Länder), businesses, trade unions and the Federal Employment Agency. Introduced in 2019 and updated every three years, the strategy identifies challenges in continuing VET from multiple perspectives and sets out strategic priorities supported by targeted funding measures. In Hungary, legislation is often used to enable stakeholder collaboration. Government Decision No. 1 276/2023 (VII. 17.), for example, mandates that the Minister for Culture and Innovation is responsible for preparing a detailed concept on the development of a national micro-credential framework and on the possibilities of introducing individual learning accounts, with the Minister for Economic Development and the Minister for Finance named as key co‑ordination partners (National Legislation Database, 2023[30]).
Sectoral skill councils are another widely used mechanism for articulating sector-specific skill needs and guiding education and training provision. Skillnet Ireland offers one of the longest-standing examples. It is a national agency operating under the Department of Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science, and is funded through the National Training Fund, which is primarily financed by employer levies. Skillnet Ireland supports 70 Skillnet Business Networks, each representing a specific sector or region, enabling employers to articulate evolving skills demands and co-design short, targeted training programmes in partnership with education and training providers (see Chapter 3 for more examples).
Programme‑based collaboration offers a further avenue for direct operational engagement among stakeholders. In the Netherlands, approximately EUR 400 million from the National Growth Fund has been allocated to the Lifelong Learning Catalyst initiative for the period 2022‑2027 (LLO Catalyst, 2026[31]). Co‑ordinated by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, the initiative brings together stakeholders from different education and training sub-sectors, government, and national and local business representatives. Its objective is to strengthen multi-stakeholder co‑ordination in lifelong learning and accelerate the development of high-demand skills (see Chapter 3 for more examples).
A more institutionalised variant of these governance models involves the establishment of dedicated bodies with mandates centred on advancing skills policy. Finland’s Service Centre for Continuous Learning and Employment operates under the joint responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Culture and the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment (OECD, 2023[32]). Established in 2022, it aims to support workforce development in response to current and emerging labour market needs. Its functions include analysing present and future skills demand, managing the allocation of funding for short adult learning programmes in high-demand fields, and developing information and guidance services. Its work is guided by the Council for Continuous Learning and Employment, which includes representatives from several ministries as well as more than ten social partner organisations. In England, Skills England, an executive agency of the Department for Work and Pensions, is mandated to work across government to ensure that young people and adults have clear, coherent skills development pathways (GOV.UK, n.d.[33]). It works with employers and other partners to co-develop and regularly update occupational standards, apprenticeships and technical qualifications in line with evolving skills needs. It also collaborates with regional partners to address local labour market challenges and respond to national priorities. Jobs and Skills Australia is a statutory body under the Department of Employment and Workplace Relations (Jobs and Skills Australia, n.d.[34]). It advises the government on current and future skills needs and on the effectiveness of training and migration systems in responding to those needs. Its performance is overseen by a Ministerial Advisory Board comprising representatives from employers, employees, and state and territory governments.
Some countries go further by establishing a body with a specific mandate to promote skills-first approaches. In Singapore, the SUSS-IAL launched the Centre for Skills-First Practices in 2025, aiming to build system-wide capability and shared understanding among stakeholders to articulate, activate and recognise skills (SUSS-IAL, 2026[35]). The centre publishes a series of papers examining skills-first approaches from different stakeholder perspectives, delivers capacity development training to engage and empower stakeholders, and partners with employers to pilot skills-first approaches. In the United States, the non-profit organisation, Opportunity@Work, was established in 2015 to help ensure that individuals who are “Skilled Through Alternative Routes” (STARs) are recognised and rewarded in the labour market. The organisation works with companies, philanthropic organisations and worker representatives to remove unnecessary degree requirements from job postings. One of its initiatives focuses on the public sector, bringing together 15 state and local governments to offer training, peer-learning opportunities and hands-on technical assistance to accelerate skills-first hiring in core functions such as budget and finance, human resources and data analysis, and IT and cybersecurity (Opportunity@Work, n.d.[36]). In the Netherlands, the Skills Embassy, a grassroots community launched in 2023, facilitates dialogue and supports cross-sector co‑ordination and collaboration on skills-first initiatives, including efforts to connect different skills passports (Skills Embassy, 2026[37]).
These approaches differ in both their institutional set-up and the nature of the collaboration involved. Some take the form of temporary or ad hoc stakeholder engagement, with collaboration organised around a defined period or specific initiative. Others are more permanent structures with an explicit mandate to bring stakeholders together on an ongoing basis. The former may be more feasible to establish in the short term and is already common in many countries. The latter requires greater effort and resources to set up, but it can provide a more robust basis for co‑ordination and signal a strong national commitment to the coherent adoption and implementation of skills-first approaches.
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← 1. A ProfilPASS certificate of competence is prepared by a trained adviser and summarises the skills identified through the skills assessment. A sample is provided in the booklet (page 86): https://www.profilpass-international.eu/files/pp_english.pdf.