Education at a Glance 2026: Portugal
Table of contents
This country note for Education at a Glance 2026 provides an overview of the key characteristics of the education system in Portugal. In line with this year’s thematic focus, it emphasises teacher shortages while also covering other parts of the education system. The data in this note are provided for the latest available year. Readers are referred to the corresponding tables in Education at a Glance 2026 for notes and reference years.
On average across the OECD, the number of teachers (measured in full-time equivalents) in public and private primary schools rose by 13% between 2015 and 2024, while the number of primary students rose by only 2% over the same period. The number of teachers a system needs is not determined by student numbers alone and differences in the variations of the number of students and teachers are driven by policy choices around class sizes, teachers’ working hours and instruction time. In Portugal, the number of primary teachers increased by 1% over this period, while the number of students decreased by 8% and the number of children aged 5-14 is projected to decrease by 6% between 2024 and 2033, pointing to lower demand for teachers if other policies remain unchanged.
Over the last few decades Portugal conducted reforms to boost numbers of graduates of vocational upper secondary programmes and tertiary graduates. In 2024, 19% of 25-34 year-olds in Portugal had attained vocational upper secondary level as their highest qualification, compared to 2% of 55-64 year-olds. Also, the share of young adults (25-34 years old) having attained tertiary education has risen from 33% in 2015 to 43% in 2025. However, this is still below the OECD average of 47%. At the same time, the share of young adults without upper secondary attainment more than halved from 33% in 2015 to 15% in 2025.
Portugal faces challenges in relation to the decrease of student numbers, especially in small regions. Between 2015 and 2024, almost 43% of small regions (Territorial Level 3 regions) in the OECD saw a decrease in the number of 10-14 year-olds. The decline was most widespread in Portugal (based on 2020 data), where 95% of small regions saw a decline in the number of 10-14 year-olds.
Coping strategies to address the declining number of students across the OECD at lower secondary level include the reduction of the number of educational institutions or the administrative restructuring rather than simple school closures. In Portugal, the school clustering reform (agrupamentos de escolas), consolidated governance and administration across multiple institutions while maintaining educational provision in different locations.
Government and private expenditure to education in Portugal is comparable to the OECD average. However, non-domestic funding plays a more important role in Portugal. With 16% of expenditure on educational institutions in 2023 (before transfers to the private sector) from non-domestic sources, Portugal is among the countries that recorded the largest shares of non-domestic funding at the tertiary level. This may reflect the role of international funding programmes from the European Union.
In 2023, tertiary institutions in Portugal allocated 74% of current expenditure to teaching staff in 2023. Only Ireland shows a larger proportion, whereas in most countries with available data, the proportion is lower than 40%.
Actual average salaries of school teachers tend to be higher than earnings of other tertiary educated workers in Portugal, in contrast to most other countries where they are lower. At the lower secondary level, teachers earn 25% more in 2025.
Statutory starting salaries increased by 18-20% from 2015 to 2025 at the primary and secondary levels across OECD countries, making the teaching profession more attractive to new entrants. Starting salaries in Portugal did not follow this trend. At the primary and secondary levels, they decreased by 10% from 2015 to 2025.
Satisfaction with employment conditions and salaries of teachers in Portugal is low compared to other OECD countries. In 2024 the share of lower secondary teachers who are satisfied with their employment conditions and salaries is 39.1% and 13.4%, respectively. Across the OECD, 68.4% of lower secondary teachers are satisfied with their employment conditions, and 38.7% with their salaries.
Recruiting second-career teachers is a common strategy for addressing teacher shortages and helps to diversify the profile of the teaching workforce. According to the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2024, on average across the OECD in 2024, 8.4% of lower secondary teachers are second-career teachers; in Portugal, they make up 3.1% of all teachers (Table 5).
The attractiveness of the teaching profession depends on a variety of factors, including employment conditions and salaries. According to the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), full-time teachers in primary, secondary and vocational education report working 40.8 hours per week on average across the OECD in 2023, compared with 41.5 hours for other full-time workers holding a bachelor’s or master’s qualification. In Portugal, these teachers report working 38.4 hours per week on average, while other full-time workers with a bachelor’s or master’s qualification report working 42.4 hours per week (Table 6).
According to the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2024, a large majority of lower secondary teachers (68.4%) are satisfied with their terms of employment (barring salaries) on average across the OECD in 2024. In contrast, the share of lower secondary teachers who are satisfied with their salaries is much lower at 38.7% on average. In Portugal, there is also a large difference between the proportion of lower secondary teachers satisfied with their employment conditions and those satisfied with their salaries: 39.1% of lower secondary teachers are satisfied with their terms of employment and 13.4% with their salaries (Table 5).
According to the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2024, 81% of lower secondary teachers report having permanent employment on average across OECD countries in 2024, 6% a fixed-term contract longer than one school year and 14% a contract of one school year or less. Permanent employment is less prevalent in Portugal with 67% of lower secondary teachers on permanent employment, and a larger proportion of teachers work on temporary contracts. Short-term contracts of one school year or less are especially common in Portugal (21% of teachers) (Table 5).
Teachers tend to be older than other workers. On average across countries with available data in 2024, 25% of secondary teachers are aged 55 and over, compared to 19% of employed individuals holding at least a master’s degree and 21% of the overall employed population. In Portugal 38% of secondary teachers are aged 55 and over, compared to 22% of employed individuals holding at least a master’s degree and 24% of the overall employed population (Figure 10).
The number of teachers a system needs is not determined by student numbers alone. On average across the OECD, measured in full-time equivalents, the number of teachers in public and private primary schools rose by 13% between 2015 and 2024, even though the number of primary students rose by only 2% over the same period, a divergence driven by policy choices around class sizes, teachers’ working hours and instruction time. In Portugal, the number of primary teachers increased by 1% over this period, while the number of students decreased by 8% (Table 7).
Looking ahead, the number of children aged 5-14 in Portugal is projected to decrease by 6% between 2024 and 2033, pointing to lower demand for teachers if other policies remain unchanged (Table 7). However, as argued above, demographic trends are only one factor shaping teacher workforce needs, and their effects can vary depending on how population change is distributed across regions. Teacher workforce needs also depend on policy decisions related to class sizes, teacher attrition and funding. Portugal adopted measures in 2023 and 2024 with an impact on number of teachers. It includes measures to provide greater stability to temporary teachers (through permanent recruitment), reforming teacher recruitment and deployment, expanding pathways into the profession, improving career progression and pay, and providing financial incentives (housing and mobility support) for teachers willing to work in regions of shortage.
Educational attainment remains at an all-time high in 2025 as more people obtain advanced qualifications. Across the OECD, 43% of working-age adults (25-64 year-olds) have a tertiary qualification, while the share of adults with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment is slightly lower at 39%. In Portugal, the share of adults with tertiary attainment is below the OECD average at 33%, while the share of adults with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment is also below the OECD average at 32% (Table A1.1).
Over the past decade, Portugal has made substantial progress in raising tertiary educational attainment. The share of young adults (25-34 year-olds) with a tertiary qualification increased by 10 percentage points in Portugal, from 33% in 2015 to 43% in 2025. However, it is still below the OECD average of 47% (Table A1.2). Whereas the share of young adults whose highest qualification is a bachelor’s or master’s degree in Portugal is similar to the OECD average (41%), a major difference with the OECD average results from the lower proportion of young adults with a short-cycle tertiary education qualification (1% in Portugal, compared with 7% on average across OECD countries) (Table A1.3).
The share of young adults without upper secondary attainment continues to decline across the OECD, standing at 12% in 2025. This trend is also apparent in Portugal, where the share of 25-34 year-olds without upper secondary attainment decreased from 33% to 15% between 2015 and 2025 (Table A1.2).
Young men are more likely than young women to lack an upper secondary qualification. On average across OECD countries in 2025, 14% of young men aged 25-34 have not completed upper secondary education, compared to 11% of young women. In Portugal, the gender gap is larger, as the proportion of young adults aged 25-34 who did not complete upper secondary education reaches 19% for men compared with 11% for women (Table A1.2).
While more young adults obtain a tertiary qualification, the share of individuals whose highest qualification is upper secondary with a vocational orientation is decreasing in almost all OECD countries. In contrast, this share is increasing in Portugal, where 2% of all 55-64 year-olds have upper secondary vocational attainment in 2025, compared to 19% of all 25-34 year-olds (Table A1.3).
Youth and young adults who are neither employed nor in education or training (NEET) are a key policy concern, as prolonged periods of inactivity at a young age can have lasting negative effects on socio-economic outcomes later in life. In Portugal, 15% of all 18-24 year-olds were NEET in 2025, down from 19% in 2015. For comparison, the average share of NEETs across OECD countries with available data for both years was 13% in 2025 and 16% in 2015 (Table A2.2).
Employment outcomes for recent tertiary graduates vary across countries and are shaped by economic conditions, labour demand, and public policy. In Portugal, the unemployment rate among tertiary-educated young adults decreased from 13% in 2015 to 6% in 2025. The corresponding rates across OECD countries with available data for both years were 7% on average in 2015 and 5% in 2025 (Table A3.3. and Figure 1).
In per cent of 25-34 year-olds in the labour force
Note: The OECD average on the right is based on a fixed sample of 34 countries.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en, Figure A3.1 and Unemployment rates of adults, by educational attainment, age group and gender (indicator), https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/570 (accessed on 27 August 2026).
The labour-market significance of advanced qualifications is also reflected in earnings. In almost every OECD country, workers (aged 25-64) without a tertiary qualification have earnings below the national average. In Portugal, full-time, full-year workers with general upper secondary as their highest level of attainment earn 12% less than the national average, those with vocational upper secondary attainment earn 9% less and those with below upper secondary attainment earn 25% less. The corresponding wage gaps on average across the OECD are 13% for general upper secondary attainment, 17% for vocational upper secondary attainment and 31% for below upper secondary attainment (Figure A4.1).
As the demand for skills in the labour market changes, participation in lifelong learning is essential for all adults. According to the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), among employed adults, in 2023 younger adults (aged 25-44) are more likely to participate in non-formal education or training than older adults (aged 45-64), but differences between the age groups are often small. In Portugal, 47% of 25-44 year-olds had participated in non-formal education or training over the last 12 months, compared to 36% of 45-64 year-olds. Across the OECD, average participation rates are 52% among 25-44 year-olds and 45% among 45-64 year-olds (Figure A5.2).
Workers with higher educational attainment are much more likely to be in jobs where they can work from home in most countries. In 2023 in Portugal, 42% of tertiary-educated workers sometimes or usually work from home compared to 12% of workers with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment (Figure A6.3).
Participation in early childhood education and care (ECEC) is common among children from the age of 3 in all OECD countries. In Portugal, 94% of children between the age of 3 and the starting age of primary education (age 6 in Portugal) were enrolled in ECEC in 2024, higher than the OECD average of 90% (Figure B1.1).
Many systems combine legal entitlement with income-based fee structures, especially before the start of compulsory education. In Portugal, ECEC is free for 25 hours per week for 3-6 year-olds, with additional hours subject to income-based fees, while younger children face a combination of flat-rate and income-related charges. In practice, the availability of places and the capacity of local services may influence access as much as formal entitlement provisions (Box B1.1).
The number of primary and secondary schools – and thus their geographical proximity to students – varies across countries. Many countries have more primary than lower secondary schools, reflecting the desire to provide education close to primary students’ homes while offering secondary students the greater choice of specialist subjects that can only be provided by larger schools. In Portugal, in 2024 there were 3.29 primary schools for each lower secondary school, well above the OECD average of 1.97 (Figure B2.4). However, caution is necessary to interpret these data as primary education in Portugal covers the first and second cycles of basic education (Grades 1 to 6) which are frequently taught in different schools, which may influence the ratio.
In most countries, there is no strong alignment between trends in the number of students and trends in the number of schools at lower secondary level. In Portugal, the number of lower secondary students increased by 0.07% annually between 2015 and 2024, while the number of lower secondary schools decreased by 0.51% annually over the same period. On average across the OECD, the number of students increased by 0.96%, while the number of schools decreased by 0.10% (Figure B2.1).
These changes can mask large differences across regions. Between 2015 and 2024, almost 43% of small regions (Territorial Level 3 regions) in the OECD saw a decrease in the number of 10-14 year-olds, with most countries experiencing growth in some regions and a decline in others. The decline was most widespread in Portugal (based on 2020 data), where 95% of small regions saw a decline in the number of 10-14 year-olds (Figure B2.3).
OECD countries have followed markedly different pathways in their efforts to align school provision with local demographic realities and changing settlement patterns. At lower secondary level, several countries reduced the number of institutions despite stable or growing student populations [Figure B2.1.]. Elsewhere, countries have increasingly relied on administrative restructuring rather than simple school closures. In Portugal, the school clustering reform (agrupamentos de escolas), consolidated governance and administration across multiple institutions while maintaining educational provision in different locations.
In upper secondary education, in 2024 84% of new entrants in Portugal complete a general or vocational programme within two years of the theoretical end of the programme. By this point, 2% of the cohort remained enrolled, while 14% have dropped out without qualifying (Table B3.3). In Portugal, women are 7 percentage points more likely to complete their upper secondary programme than their men peers, a gap that is larger than the gap in most other countries with available data (Table B3.2).
At tertiary level (ISCED 5-8), most OECD countries host a larger number of international students than they send abroad. On average across the OECD, outbound internationally mobile students account for 6% of all national students (whether enrolled domestically or abroad), while inbound students account for 12% of all students enrolled domestically in 2024. In Portugal the share of outbound international students is 4%, while inbound international students average 13%. The top three destination countries for outbound students in Portugal are the United Kingdom (17%), the Netherlands (15%) and Spain (15%), while the top three origin countries of inbound students are Brazil (28%), Guinea-Bissau (11%) and Angola (11%) (Table B4.3. and Table B4.4).
In many countries, inbound mobility has increased faster than outbound mobility among tertiary students. On average across the OECD, the share of inbound mobile students increased by 4 percentage points between 2015 and 2024, and the share of outbound mobile students increased by 1 percentage point. In Portugal, the share of inbound students increased by 8 percentage points, twice the increase across OECD countries, while the share of outbound students increased by 1 percentage point (Table B4.3). As a result, the share of international students in Portugal moved from below the OECD average in 2015 to above the OECD average in 2024 (Table B4.3).
Most investment in education comes from public sources. On average across the OECD, government expenditure on primary to tertiary education (based on initial funds, on educational institutions) corresponded to 4% of GDP in 2023, while private expenditure corresponded to 0.6%. In Portugal, government expenditure equalled 3.8% of GDP in 2023, while private expenditure equalled 0.8% (Table C1.8).
Non-domestic funding accounted for a relatively small share of expenditure in most countries, but with 16% of expenditure on educational institutions in 2023 (before transfers to the private sector) Portugal is among countries that recorded the largest share of non-domestic funding at the tertiary level (Figure C1.4). This may reflect the role of international funding programmes from the European Union. For example, the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) invested EUR 147 million for research infrastructure in Portugal and EUR 339 million for research and innovation to strengthen science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) career pathways. This comes alongside other initiatives in Portugal to increase the number of tertiary STEM graduates in first-cycle programmes and short-term courses (European Commission, 2025[1]).
In OECD countries with available data for both years, average government expenditure on primary to tertiary education (based on final funds, inside and outside educational institutions) has decreased slightly from 4.4% of GDP in 2015 to 4.2% in 2023. Over the same period, it decreased from 4.4% to 4.1% in Portugal, thus mirroring the trend of declining government expenditure on education as a share of GDP (Figure 2).
Total government expenditure on education (inside and outside of educational institutions); primary to tertiary education
1. Data include or exclude some categories, please refer to the source table for more information.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en, Figure C1.2 and Table C1.7.
Based on annual data, government expenditure on primary to tertiary education as share of GDP (based on final funds, on educational institutions, including R&D) varies by a factor of approximately two across OECD countries (ranging from 2.4% to 5.2%), while government expenditure per student varies by a factor of ten (from USD 3 398 to USD 32 832 adjusted for purchasing power parity) as differences in income levels mean nominal expenditure tends to vary more than relative expenditure. On average across the OECD, expenditure per student from primary to tertiary education was USD 13 601 in 2023, while in Portugal it was USD 11 605 (Table C1.4. and Table C1.1).
Government expenditure on education tends to rise with the level of education. In primary education, expenditure per student was USD 10 936 in 2023 in Portugal and USD 12 893 on average across the OECD. In lower secondary education, it was USD 14 387 in Portugal and USD 14 291 on average across the OECD. Thus, Portugal is among the majority of OECD countries where expenditure is higher at lower secondary level than at primary level (Table C3.1).
Expenditure can be divided into capital and current expenditure: the former finances investment in assets such as infrastructure, while the latter covers regular operating costs. Current expenditure can be further broken down into staff compensation and other current expenditure, such as purchases of goods and services and routine maintenance. In Portugal in 2023, 86% of current expenditure in primary educational institutions was dedicated to staff compensation compared to 79% on average across the OECD, while the remainder was dedicated to other current expenditure (Figure C3.3).
On average across the OECD, government expenditure per student is the highest at bachelor’s and above levels despite being the levels where government expenditure accounts for the smallest share of total expenditure. Portugal is among the countries where government expenditure constitutes a smaller share of total expenditure compared to the OECD average. Government expenditure per student was USD 9 368 in 2023, corresponding to 55% of total expenditure per student at bachelor’s and above levels. In comparison, average government expenditure per student across the OECD was USD 16 405, amounting to 68% of total expenditure per student (Table C5.1).
The distribution of current expenditure within all tertiary institutions differs markedly across countries. In Portugal 74% of current expenditure within all tertiary institutions was allocated to teaching staff in 2023 (only Ireland shows a larger proportion) whereas in most countries with available data, the proportion was lower than 40% (Figure C5.4).
Most countries have increased their investment in pre-primary education in recent years. This is also reflected in the ratio of children to teachers. Across the OECD, the number of children enrolled at this level decreased slightly by 2% between 2015 and 2024 while the number of teachers increased by 14%, resulting in a 14% reduction in the child-to-teacher ratio. In Portugal, the number of children enrolled in pre-primary education increased by 2%, while the number of pre-primary teachers also increased by 10%, resulting in a 7% decrease of the child-to-teacher ratio (Data for chart D2.1).
In most countries, average actual salaries of teachers in public institutions are lower than the earnings of tertiary-educated workers, especially for teachers at lower levels of education. However, this is not the case in Portugal, where pre-primary teachers earned on average 35% more than tertiary-educated workers in 2025, while lower secondary teachers earned on average 25% more than tertiary-educated workers (Table D3.2). While pre-primary to secondary teachers in Portugal have the same statutory salaries, their average actual salaries differ as a result of a different distribution of teachers across the pay scale (which depends on the level of experience of teachers) and differences in additional payments and allowances received by teachers.
On average across OECD countries and economies with comparable data over the period 2015-25, starting statutory salaries rose in real terms by 20% at primary level and lower secondary level and by 18% at upper secondary (general programmes) level, making it more attractive to enter the profession (Table D3.6, available online). In three-quarters of OECD countries and economies, starting statutory salaries at the lower secondary level increased in real terms. However, in a few countries, they decreased significantly, including by 10% in Portugal (Table D3.6, available online).
Teachers spend only a fraction of their working time teaching; the remainder is devoted to other tasks, including lesson preparation and marking. On average across the OECD, primary teachers taught 770 hours per year compared to 710 hours per year in lower secondary education. In Portugal, annual maximum teaching hours were 783 in primary education and 605 in lower secondary education. Thus, Portugal was among the large majority of countries where teachers in lower secondary education had to teach fewer hours than those in primary education (Figure 3).
Net statutory teaching time in hours per year, in public institutions
Note: Please refer to the source table for information on whether the data refer to typical, minimum or maximum hours.
1. Actual teaching time (in Latvia except for pre-primary level).
2. Reference year differs from 2023. Refer to the source table for details.
3. Average planned teaching time in each school at the beginning of the school year.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en, Figure D4.1 and Table D4.1.
Women form the majority of teachers at all levels of education except tertiary education. Teachers in pre-primary education are almost entirely women with 96% of teachers being female on average across the OECD in 2024. The share of women among pre-primary teachers in Portugal is even higher at 99%. At 72%, the share of female teachers in lower secondary education is lower, although it is still above the OECD average of 68% (Table D5.1).
Evaluations of schools are more widespread than those of teachers, with school inspections being used in 24 out of 28 countries and economies with available data in 2025. Portugal is among the majority of countries with a mandatory evaluation mechanism at primary or lower secondary levels (Figure D6.1).
In one-quarter of the countries and economies, in 2025 the school evaluation policy framework only covers school inspections, and not school self-evaluation and school compliance-reporting. In Portugal, all three types of school evaluation are formally regulated (Tables D6.1 and D6.4).
School inspections are frequently used in 2025 for both improving schools (formative purposes) and determining whether they are performing as required (summative purposes). Portugal is one of the two countries where school inspections are used (to a high extent) for formative purposes only (Figure D6.4).
References
[1] European Commission (2025), Education and Training Monitor 2025: Portugal, Publications Office of the European Union, https://op.europa.eu/webpub/eac/education-and-training-monitor/en/country-reports/portugal.html.
Contact
For more information on Education at a Glance 2026 and to access the full set of indicators, see: https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en.
For more information on the methodology used during the data collection for each indicator, the references to the sources and the specific notes for each country, see Education at a Glance 2026: Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes, https://doi.org/10.1787/dcf64a14-en.
For general information on the methodology, please refer to the OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264304444-en.
Updated data can be found online at http://data-explorer.oecd.org/ and by following the StatLinks in the publication.
Explore, compare and visualise more data and analysis using the Education GPS: https://gpseducation.oecd.org/.
Questions can be directed to the Education at a Glance team at the OECD Directorate for Education and Skills: EDU.EAG@oecd.org.
This work is issued under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD, and does not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD Member countries.
This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.
Note by the Republic of Türkiye:
The information in this document with reference to “Cyprus” relates to the southern part of the Island. There is no single authority representing both Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the Island. Türkiye recognises the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). Until a lasting and equitable solution is found within the context of the United Nations, Türkiye shall preserve its position concerning the “Cyprus issue”.
Note by all the European Union Member States of the OECD and the European Union:
The Republic of Cyprus is recognised by all members of the United Nations with the exception of Türkiye. The information in this document relates to the area under the effective control of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus.
The full book is available in English: OECD (2026), Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/b4968bbc-en.
© OECD 2026
Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence. By using this work, you accept to be bound by the terms of this licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Attribution – you must cite the work.
Translations – you must cite the original work, identify changes to the original and add the following text: In the event of any discrepancy between the original work and the translation, only the text of original work should be considered valid.
Adaptations – you must cite the original work and add the following text: This is an adaptation of an original work by the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed in this adaptation should not be reported as representing the official views of the OECD or of its Member countries.
Third-party material – the licence does not apply to third-party material in the work. If using such material, you are responsible for obtaining permission from the third party and for any claims of infringement.
You must not use the OECD logo, visual identity or cover image without express permission or suggest the OECD endorses your use of the work.
Any dispute arising under this licence shall be settled by arbitration in accordance with the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) Arbitration Rules 2012. The seat of arbitration shall be Paris (France). The number of arbitrators shall be one.