Education at a Glance 2026: Japan
Table of contents
This country note for Education at a Glance 2026 provides an overview of the key characteristics of the education system in Japan. In line with this year’s thematic focus, it emphasises teacher shortages while also covering other parts of the education system. The data in this note are provided for the latest available year. Readers are referred to the corresponding tables in Education at a Glance 2026 for notes and reference years.
Some 58% of 25-64 year-olds in Japan hold a tertiary qualification, among the highest rates in the OECD and well above the OECD average of 43%. However, the tertiary education system is less internationally oriented: only 1% of Japanese students enrolled in tertiary education study abroad, against 6% on average across the OECD, while international students account for 5% of tertiary enrolment in Japan in 2024, compared with 12% across the OECD.
The share of teaching positions left vacant at the start of the school year, or shortly after, is low in Japan, even if it rose from 0.2% in 2021/22 to 0.4% in 2025/26 at primary and secondary levels. Countries often address such shortages by recruiting second-career teachers, but Japan relies far less on them than most other countries: they make up just 0.9% of its teachers, against an OECD average of 8.4% at lower secondary level.
The number of primary students in Japan fell by 7% between 2015 and 2024, and the population aged 5-14 is projected to shrink by a further 19% between 2024 and 2033. This decline might suggest that teacher numbers will fall in turn. The effect of demography on the demand for teachers, however, also depends on policy choices, notably class size. In Japan, average class size in lower secondary education was 32 students in 2024, among the largest in the OECD, against an OECD average that has remained stable at 23 students.
Government spending per student tends to rise with the level of education, and Japan follows this pattern: expenditure per student increases from USD 10 843 at primary level to USD 11 623 at lower secondary. Across primary to tertiary education, Japan spent USD 10 323 per student in 2023, below the OECD average of USD 13 601, and expenditure per student remains lower than the OECD average at every level.
Starting salaries for lower secondary teachers in Japan rose 17% in real terms between 2015 and 2025, a larger increase than that recorded in many OECD countries. Satisfaction levels, however, remain comparatively low: 28.6% of teachers are satisfied with their salaries, against an OECD average of 38.7%, and 37.3% are satisfied with their other terms of employment, against an OECD average of 68.4%.
Shortages of skilled workers have affected many sectors across the OECD in recent years, and the teaching profession is no exception. Teacher shortages manifest in different ways across education systems: in some countries, a lack of fully qualified teachers is reflected in a higher share of non-fully qualified staff, while in others a significant number of teaching positions remain unfilled.
Non-fully qualified teachers refer to teachers who do not yet meet all the requirements to be recognised as fully qualified teachers under national regulations. In most countries, they either possess the required academic qualifications but lack mandatory certification or teacher training, have completed the required teacher training but do not hold the required academic qualifications, or lack both. Japan is one of the only countries in the OECD without non-fully qualified teachers (Figure 1).
Countries use two main approaches to measuring teacher shortages. The first approach estimates shortages before or at the start of the school year based on projected recruitment needs. The second approach measures shortages by counting the number of positions that remain vacant at the start of the school year or shortly after it begins. Japan uses the second approach, and 0.3% of all teaching positions in public secondary education were unfilled at or shortly before the start of the 2025/26 school year (Table 2).
Among countries and economies with trend data for unfilled teaching vacancies at primary and secondary levels combined, both the number and the share of unfilled teaching positions generally increased between 2017/18 and 2024/25. Unfilled teaching vacancies also increased in Japan. The share of positions at primary and secondary levels that remain vacant at the start of the school year or shortly after it begins increased from 0.2% in the academic year 2021/22 to 0.4% in the academic year 2025/26, which remains a low level of unfilled vacancies (Table 2).
In per cent, full-time equivalents, public institutions
1. Year of reference differs from 2024/25: academic year 2023/24 for Denmark, Finland, France, Germany and Switzerland; calendar year 2024 for Chile and Costa Rica; calendar year 2025 for New Zealand; academic year 2025/26 for Japan.
2. Pre-primary and primary education are combined in France, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Upper secondary education is excluded in Denmark, Israel and Switzerland. Upper secondary vocational education is excluded in Finland, Hungary and the Netherlands.
3. Teacher data are based on headcounts instead of full-time equivalents.
4. Year of reference differs from 2017/18: academic year 2018/19 for Bulgaria, the Netherlands, and Switzerland; 2019/20 for Luxembourg and Poland; calendar year 2020 for New Zealand.
5. Including government-dependent private institutions.
6. Teachers classified as non-fully qualified in these countries are in the process of acquiring full qualification.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en, Figure 1 and Table 1.
Recruiting second-career teachers is a common strategy for addressing teacher shortages and helps to diversify the profile of the teaching workforce. According to the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2024, on average across the OECD, 8.4% of lower secondary teachers are second-career teachers; in Japan, they make up 0.9% of all teachers (Table 5).
The attractiveness of the teaching profession depends on a variety of factors, including working conditions and salaries. According to the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), full-time teachers in primary, secondary and vocational education report working 40.8 hours per week on average across the OECD in 2023, compared with 41.5 hours for other full-time workers holding a bachelor’s or master’s qualification. In Japan, these teachers report working 50.4 hours per week on average, while other full-time workers with a bachelor’s or master’s qualification report working 44.1 hours per week (Table 6).
According to the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2024, a large majority of lower secondary teachers (68.4%) are satisfied with their terms of employment (barring salaries) on average across the OECD. In contrast, the share of lower secondary teachers who are satisfied with their salaries is much lower at 38.7% on average. In Japan, 37.3% of lower secondary teachers are satisfied with their terms of employment and 28.6% are satisfied with their salaries (Table 5).
Indicators related to classroom climate suggest that behavioural and disciplinary challenges for teachers in public and private schools have also intensified in many education systems. On average across OECD countries and economies, the share of teachers reporting that they “frequently” or “always” need to calm disruptive students in class increased from 64% in 2018 to 72% in 2024. The increase was larger in Japan (+14 points, from about 45% to 58%).
The number of teachers a system needs is not determined by student numbers alone. On average across the OECD, measured in full-time equivalents, the number of teachers in public and private primary schools rose by 13% between 2015 and 2024, even though the number of primary students rose by only 2% over the same period, a divergence driven by policy choices around class sizes, teachers’ working hours and instruction time. In Japan, the number of primary teachers increased by 7% over this period, while the number of students decreased by 7% (Table 7).
Beyond teacher numbers, demographic change also affects the organisation of teaching through changes in the number of classes and average class size. Only a minority of countries experienced declines in the number of classes between 2015 and 2024. In Japan, the number of classes decreased by 7% at the primary level and 8% at the secondary level.
Looking ahead, the number of children aged 5-14 in Japan is projected to decrease by 19% between 2024 and 2033, pointing to lower demand for teachers if other policies remain unchanged (Table 7). However, as argued above, demographic trends are only one factor shaping teacher workforce needs, and their effects can vary depending on how population change is distributed across regions. Teacher workforce needs also depend on policy decisions related to class sizes, teacher attrition and funding.
Educational attainment remains at an all-time high in 2025 as more people obtain advanced qualifications. Across the OECD, 43% of working-age adults (25-64 year-olds) have a tertiary qualification, while the share of adults with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment is slightly lower at 39%. In Japan, the share of adults with tertiary attainment is above the OECD average at 58%, while the share of adults with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment is also above the OECD average at 42% (Table A1.1).
As the demand for skills in the labour market changes, participation in lifelong learning is essential for all adults. According to the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), among employed adults, younger adults (aged 25-44) are more likely to participate in non-formal education or training than older adults (aged 45-64), but differences between the age groups are often small. In Japan, 46% of 25-44 year-olds had participated in non-formal education or training over the last 12 months, compared to 38% of 45-64 year-olds. Across the OECD, average participation rates are 52% among 25-44 year-olds and 45% among 45-64 year-olds (Figure A5.2).
Participation in early childhood education and care (ECEC) is common among children from the age of 3 in all OECD countries. In Japan, 95% of children between the age of 3 and the starting age of primary education (age 6 in Japan) were enrolled in ECEC in 2024, higher than the OECD average of 90% (Figure B1.1). However, enrolment rates for younger children vary widely across OECD countries. Among 2 year old children in Japan, 63% are enrolled in early childhood educational development programmes that meet the criteria of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) by combining education and care. This places Japan in the middle of OECD countries with available data (Table B1.1).
At tertiary level (ISCED 5-8), most OECD countries host a larger number of international students than they send abroad. On average across the OECD, outbound internationally mobile students account for 6% of all national students (whether enrolled domestically or abroad), while inbound students account for 12% of all students enrolled domestically in 2024. In Japan, the share of Japanese students enrolled in tertiary education abroad is 1%, while international students in Japan account for 5%. The top three destination countries for Japanese students enrolled in tertiary education abroad are the United States (34%), Australia (9%) and the United Kingdom (9%), while the top three origin countries of international students are China (50%), Viet Nam (12%) and Korea (8%) (Table B4.3. and Table B4.4). However, data are based on information reported by host countries, and coverage for some destinations of Japanese students studying abroad, particularly in Asia, is partial.
In many countries, inbound mobility has increased faster than outbound mobility among tertiary students. On average across the OECD, the share of inbound mobile students increased by 4 percentage points between 2015 and 2024, and the share of outbound mobile students increased by 1 percentage point. In Japan, the share of international students increased by 1 percentage point, while the share of Japanese students enrolled in tertiary education abroad remained the same (Table B4.3).
Many countries have adopted explicit internationalisation strategies combining recruitment targets, national branding and improved student services.
In OECD countries with available data for both 2015 and 2023, average government expenditure on primary to tertiary education (based on final funds, inside and outside educational institutions) has decreased slightly from 4.4% of GDP in 2015 to 4.2% in 2023. Over the same period, it decreased from 3.0% to 2.7% in Japan, thus mirroring the trend of declining government expenditure on education as a share of GDP (Figure 2).
Total government expenditure on education (inside and outside of educational institutions); primary to tertiary education
1. Data include or exclude some categories, please refer to the source table for more information.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en, Figure C1.2 and Table C1.7.
Government expenditure on primary to tertiary education as share of GDP (based on final funds, on educational institutions, including R&D) varies by a factor of approximately two across OECD countries (ranging from 2.4% to 5.2%), while government expenditure per student varies by a factor of ten (from USD 3 398 to USD 32 832 adjusted for purchasing power parity) as differences in income levels mean nominal expenditure tends to vary more than relative expenditure. On average across the OECD, expenditure per student from primary to tertiary education was USD 13 601 in 2023, while in Japan it was USD 10 323 (Table C1.4. and Table C1.1).
In early childhood education, government expenditure per child has grown substantially between 2015 and 2023 in many OECD countries. This was also the case in Japan, where expenditure per child aged 3-5 in 2023 was USD 7 194 compared to USD 3 754 in 2015 (Table C2.3).
Government expenditure on education tends to rise with the level of education. In primary education, expenditure per student was USD 10 843 in 2023 in Japan and USD 12 893 on average across the OECD. In lower secondary education, it was USD 11 623 in Japan and USD 14 291 on average across the OECD. Thus, Japan is among the majority of OECD countries where expenditure is higher at lower secondary level than at primary level (Table C3.1).
Expenditure can be divided into capital and current expenditure: the former finances investment in assets such as infrastructure, while the latter covers regular operating costs. Capital expenditure represented a comparatively small share of total expenditure in most OECD countries. However, in Japan, it accounted for more than 12-13% of total expenditure, depending on the level of education. This may reflect infrastructure investment cycles, expansion of capacity or efforts to modernise educational facilities (Table C1.2).
Current expenditure can be further broken down into staff compensation and other current expenditure, such as purchases of goods and services and routine maintenance. In Japan, 78% of current expenditure in primary educational institutions is dedicated to staff compensation compared to 79% on average across the OECD, while the remainder is dedicated to other current expenditure (Figure C3.3).
There is considerable variation across countries in how staff compensation is structured. In some systems, salaries account for a particularly large share of current expenditure. In contrast, other countries allocate a larger share to pensions or other types of compensation. This is the case in Japan, where retirement pensions account for 15% of current expenditure.
On average across the OECD, government expenditure per student is the highest at bachelor’s and above levels despite being the levels where government expenditure accounts for the smallest share of total expenditure. Japan is among the countries where government expenditure constitutes a smaller share of total expenditure compared to the OECD average. Government expenditure per student was USD 8 859 in 2023, corresponding to 38% of total expenditure at bachelor’s and above levels. In comparison, average government expenditure per student across the OECD was USD 16 405, amounting to 68% of total expenditure (Table C5.1).
As discussed above, most countries have increased their investment in pre-primary education in recent years. This is also reflected in the ratio of children to teachers. Across the OECD, the number of children enrolled at this level decreased slightly by 2% between 2015 and 2024 while the number of teachers increased by 14%, resulting in a 14% reduction in the child-to-teacher ratio. In Japan, the number of children enrolled in pre-primary education decreased by 42%, while the number of pre-primary teachers also decreased by 20%, resulting in a 28% decrease of the child-to-teacher ratio (Data for chart D2.1).
On average across OECD countries, the average class size in lower secondary education remained stable at 23 students per class between 2015 and 2024. Class size in Japan also remained stable over the period, at 32 students per class which is among the largest class size across OECD countries (Table D2.3).
High salaries or increases in salaries can make the teaching profession more attractive. In most of the 29 countries with available data for the period 2015 to 2025 for both starting salaries and salaries after 15 years of experience of lower secondary teachers, salaries at both stages either increased or decreased in real terms. In Japan starting salaries rose by 17 percentage points while those for teachers with 15 years of experience decreased by 4 percentage points in real values. (Annex 2 Tables X2.5 and X2.6).
Teachers spend only a fraction of their working time teaching; the remainder is devoted to other tasks, including lesson preparation and marking. On average across the OECD, primary teachers taught 770 hours per year compared to 710 hours per year in lower secondary education. In Japan, annual average planned teaching hours were 715 in primary education and 594 in lower secondary education. Thus, Japan was among the large majority of countries where teachers in lower secondary education had to teach fewer hours than those in primary education (Figure 3).
Differences in task requirements between countries could help explain differences in the proportion of statutory working time teachers spend on non-teaching tasks and responsibilities. For example, Japan is one of the 11 countries where engaging in extracurricular activities is mandatory for some teachers at the discretion of schools at lower secondary level (Table D4.4, available online), and according to the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2024 lower secondary teachers in Japan reported spending the highest proportion of their actual working time on this responsibility (10%) among OECD countries.
Net statutory teaching time in hours per year, in public institutions
Note: Please refer to the source table for information on whether the data refer to typical, minimum or maximum hours.
1. Actual teaching time (in Latvia except for pre-primary level).
2. Reference year differs from 2025. Refer to the source table for details.
3. Average planned teaching time in each school at the beginning of the school year.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en, Figure D4.1 and Table D4.1.
Women form the majority of teachers at all levels of education except tertiary. Teachers in pre-primary education are almost entirely women with 96% of teachers being female on average across the OECD. The share of women among pre-primary teachers in Japan is even higher at 97%. However, this proportion decreases at primary and secondary levels. At 44%, the share of female teachers in lower secondary education is lower, and it is below the OECD average of 68%. At the upper secondary level, Japan stands out with women making up only 32% of teachers, compared with 60% on average across the OECD (Table D5.1).
Across the OECD, women are more strongly represented among teachers than among school management staff. In primary education, women in Japan accounted for 63% of teachers and 29% of school management staff in 2024, a gap of 34 percentage points. This gap was larger than the OECD average of 15 percentage points (Figure D5.3). At upper secondary level, women accounted for just 15% of school management staff in Japan (Table D5.2).
Regular teacher appraisal as a quality assurance mechanism is common in some countries, but not in others. Japan uses an appraisal mechanism with mandatory appraisals of teachers, as do 16 out of 29 countries and economies with available data (Figure D7.1).
Appraisals of schools are more widespread than those of teachers, with school inspections being used in 24 out of 28 countries and economies with available data. Japan is among the few countries with no appraisal mechanism at primary or lower secondary schools (Figure D6.1). However, Japan is among the 19 countries with regulated school self-evaluation. In Japan, these are mandatory and are organised more than once a year.
For more information on Education at a Glance 2026 and to access the full set of indicators, see: https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en.
For more information on the methodology used during the data collection for each indicator, the references to the sources and the specific notes for each country, see Education at a Glance 2026: Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes, https://doi.org/10.1787/dcf64a14-en.
For general information on the methodology, please refer to the OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264304444-en.
Updated data can be found online at http://data-explorer.oecd.org/ and by following the StatLinks in the publication.
Explore, compare and visualise more data and analysis using the Education GPS: https://gpseducation.oecd.org/.
Questions can be directed to the Education at a Glance team at the OECD Directorate for Education and Skills: EDU.EAG@oecd.org.
This work is issued under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD, and does not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD Member countries.
This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.
Note by the Republic of Türkiye:
The information in this document with reference to “Cyprus” relates to the southern part of the Island. There is no single authority representing both Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the Island. Türkiye recognises the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). Until a lasting and equitable solution is found within the context of the United Nations, Türkiye shall preserve its position concerning the “Cyprus issue”.
Note by all the European Union Member States of the OECD and the European Union:
The Republic of Cyprus is recognised by all members of the United Nations with the exception of Türkiye. The information in this document relates to the area under the effective control of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus.
The full book is available in English: OECD (2026), Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/b4968bbc-en.
© OECD 2026
Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence. By using this work, you accept to be bound by the terms of this licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Attribution – you must cite the work.
Translations – you must cite the original work, identify changes to the original and add the following text: In the event of any discrepancy between the original work and the translation, only the text of original work should be considered valid.
Adaptations – you must cite the original work and add the following text: This is an adaptation of an original work by the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed in this adaptation should not be reported as representing the official views of the OECD or of its Member countries.
Third-party material – the licence does not apply to third-party material in the work. If using such material, you are responsible for obtaining permission from the third party and for any claims of infringement.
You must not use the OECD logo, visual identity or cover image without express permission or suggest the OECD endorses your use of the work.
Any dispute arising under this licence shall be settled by arbitration in accordance with the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) Arbitration Rules 2012. The seat of arbitration shall be Paris (France). The number of arbitrators shall be one.