Education at a Glance 2026: Germany
Table of contents
This country note for Education at a Glance 2026 provides an overview of the key characteristics of the education system in Germany. In line with this year’s thematic focus, it emphasises teacher shortages while also covering other parts of the education system. The data in this note are provided for the latest available year. Readers are referred to the corresponding tables in Education at a Glance 2026 for notes and reference years.
Shortages of skilled workers have affected many sectors across the OECD in recent years, and the teaching profession is no exception. Teacher shortages manifest in different ways across education systems: in some countries, a lack of fully qualified teachers is reflected in a higher share of non-fully qualified staff, while in others a significant number of teaching positions remain unfilled.
Non-fully qualified teachers refer to teachers who do not yet meet all the requirements to be recognised as fully qualified teachers under national regulations. In most countries, they either possess the required academic qualifications but lack mandatory certification or teacher training, have completed the required teacher training but do not hold the required academic qualifications, or lack both. Fully qualified teachers in Germany are required to hold a master’s degree and complete a preparatory service of approximately 18 months before obtaining full qualification to teach at the primary and secondary levels. In Germany, 18.6% of all primary and secondary teachers in public institutions did not have an ISCED level 7 qualification or were still in education and training and were thus considered not fully qualified in 2023/24.1 This high share may reflect the comparatively long qualification process to become a fully qualified teacher in Germany and the continued use of alternative entry pathways in response to persistent teacher shortages.
Temporary absenteeism of teachers (e.g. because of sick leave, paternity leave, or other temporary leave) can contribute to staffing challenges. Although no data are available on the number of teachers temporarily absent in Germany, 55% of students attend schools whose principals report that teacher absenteeism hinders learning according to PISA data. This is the second-highest share in the OECD and more than twice the OECD average of 27% (Table 8).
The attractiveness of the teaching profession depends on a variety of factors, including working conditions and salaries. According to the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), full-time teachers in primary, secondary and vocational education report working 40.8 hours per week on average across the OECD in 2023, compared with 41.5 hours for other full-time workers holding a bachelor’s or master’s qualification. In Germany, these teachers report working 42.4 hours per week on average, while other full-time workers with a bachelor’s or master’s qualification report working 41.5 hours per week. This difference is not statistically significant (Table 6.).
Although teacher salaries in Germany remain among the highest in the OECD, they stagnated or declined between 2015 and 2025. After adjusting for inflation, the statutory salaries of lower secondary teachers with 15 years of experience, for example, fell by 1% over this period, while they increased by 6% on average across the OECD (Table D3.7).
Teachers in many OECD countries tend to be older than other workers. On average across countries with available data, 25% of secondary teachers are aged 55 and over, compared to 19% of employed individuals holding at least a master’s degree and 21% of the overall employed population. In Germany, 24% of secondary teachers are aged 55 and over, which is identical to the share among employed individuals holding at least a master’s degree and slightly below the share among the overall employed population (27%) (Figure 1). While Germany thus does not follow the pattern of many OECD countries, its ageing demographic structure nevertheless means that a significant proportion of teachers are expected to retire over the next 10 years.
In per cent, full-time and part-time, public and private institutions
1. Including primary teachers who are aged 55 or over.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en, Table 4.
The number of teachers a system needs is not determined by student numbers alone. On average across the OECD, measured in full-time equivalents, the number of teachers in public and private primary schools rose by 13% between 2015 and 2024, even though the number of primary students rose by only 2% over the same period, a divergence driven by policy choices around class sizes, teachers’ working hours and instruction time. In Germany, the number of primary teachers increased by 17% over this period, while the number of students increased by 15% (Table 7).
In most countries, salaries of teachers in public institutions are lower than the salaries of other tertiary-educated workers, especially for teachers at lower levels of education. In Germany, where primary teachers earned on average 13% less than other tertiary-educated workers, while lower secondary teachers earned on average 4% less than other tertiary-educated workers and upper secondary teachers earn 1% more (Table D3.2.).
Teachers spend only a fraction of their working time teaching; the remainder is devoted to other tasks, including lesson preparation and marking. On average across the OECD, primary teachers taught 770 hours per year compared to 710 hours per year in lower secondary education. In Germany, annual typical statutory teaching hours were 691 in primary education and 642 in lower secondary education. Thus, Germany was among the large majority of countries where teachers in lower secondary education had to teach fewer hours than those in primary education, although the difference was smaller than average (Figure 6).
Educational attainment remains at an all-time high in 2025 as more people obtain advanced qualifications. Across the OECD, 43% of working-age adults (25-64 year-olds) have a tertiary qualification, while the share of adults with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment is slightly lower at 39%. In Germany, the share of adults with tertiary attainment is below the OECD average at 35%, while the share of adults with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment is above the OECD average at 50%, reflecting the strong system of vocational education and training. Taken together, this means that 86% of 25-64 year-olds in Germany have attained at least an upper secondary qualification compared to the OECD average of 81% (Table A1.1).
Younger adults across OECD countries tend to have higher levels of educational attainment than older generations. Across the OECD, the share of 25-34 year-olds with tertiary attainment increased from 42% in 2015 to 49% in 2025, while at the same time the share of those without upper secondary qualification declined from 17% in 2015 to 12% in 2025. In Germany, tertiary attainment among younger adults increased strongly over the same period, from 30% in 2015 to 41% in 2025. However, the share without an upper secondary qualification increased by 1 percentage point to 14% in 2025, resulting in a pronounced decline in the share of young adults with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment by 13 percentage points to 45% in 2025 (Table A1.2).
The trend towards higher levels of educational attainment is also reflected in the shift away from upper secondary vocational qualifications as the highest level of attainment. While 43% of 55-64 year-olds have a vocational upper secondary qualification as their highest level of attainment, this is the case for only 21% of 25-34 year-olds. This generational difference is much larger than the OECD average, where the corresponding share declined from 25% among 55-64 year-olds to 19% among 25-34 year-olds (Figure 2). However, vocational education and training continues to play an important role in the German education system, more important than these figures might suggest, as Germany has further strengthened its well-established vocational education and training system by introducing advanced vocational qualifications in tertiary education up to ISCED level 7 in recent years, with coherent and well-structured pathways comprising successive levels of higher vocational education and training that enable progression to higher-level qualifications.
In per cent
1. Year of reference differs from 2025.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en, Table A1.3.
Employment and unemployment rates among young adults (25-34 year-olds) with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment clearly demonstrate the importance of vocational education and training and its strong alignment with labour market demand in Germany. In 2025, 89% of young adults with a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary qualification in Germany were employed, 1 percentage point more than among young adults with a tertiary qualification. Only 3.4% were unemployed, 0.6 percentage points less than among young adults with a tertiary qualification. Across the OECD, 83% of young adults with a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary qualification were employed and 6.8% were unemployed in 2025. (Table A3.2, Table A3.3 and Figure A3.2)
Youth and young adults who are neither employed nor in education or training (NEET) are a key policy concern, as prolonged periods of inactivity at a young age can have lasting negative effects on socio-economic outcomes later in life. In Germany, 11% of all 18-24 year-olds were NEET in 2025, up from 9% in 2015. For comparison, the average share of NEETs across OECD countries with available data for both years was 13% in 2025 and 16% in 2015 (Table A2.2).
Reducing the share of young adults without an upper secondary qualification is particularly important because this group is especially vulnerable to economic downturns. In Germany, unemployment among 25-34 year-olds with tertiary attainment increased slightly between 2024 and 2025 from 3.5% to 4.0%. Likewise, unemployment for young adults with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment increased only slightly from 3.3% to 3.9%, but it increased from 9.3% to 12.3% among those without an upper secondary qualification. Across the OECD, unemployment rates in 2025 were 4.9% among young adults with tertiary attainment, 6.7% among those with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment and 13.5% among those with below upper secondary attainment, largely unchanged from 2024 (Table A3.3 and Figure 3).
In per cent of 25-34 year-olds in the labour force
Note: The OECD average on the right is based on a fixed sample of 34 countries.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en, Figure A3.1 and Unemployment rates of adults, by educational attainment, age group and gender (indicator), https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/570 (accessed on 27 August 2026).
Another aspect of the labour-market significance of advanced qualifications is also reflected in earnings. In almost every OECD country, workers (aged 25-64) without a tertiary qualification have earnings below the national average. In Germany, full-time, full-year workers with general upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary as their highest level of attainment earn 11% less than the national average, those with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment earn 17% less and those with below upper secondary attainment earn 37% less. The corresponding wage gaps on average across the OECD are 13% for general upper secondary attainment, 17% for vocational upper secondary attainment and 31% for below upper secondary attainment (Figure A4.1).
As the demand for skills in the labour market changes, participation in lifelong learning is essential for all adults. According to the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), among employed adults, younger adults (aged 25-44) are more likely to participate in non-formal education or training than older adults (aged 45-64), but differences between the age groups are often small. In Germany, 57% of employed 25-44 year-olds had participated in non-formal education or training over the last 12 months, compared to 49% of employed 45-64 year-olds. Across the OECD, average participation rates are 52% among employed 25-44 year-olds and 45% among employed 45-64 year-olds (Table A5.2 and Figure A5.2).
Workers with higher educational attainment are much more likely to be in jobs where they can work from home in most countries. In Germany, 45% of tertiary-educated workers sometimes or usually work from home compared to 16% of workers with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment (Figure A6.3).
Germany is among approximately one-third of OECD countries where, in principle, there is no gap between the end of paid parental leave and the start of the statutory entitlement to childcare, meaning that the legal entitlement begins no later than the end of paid parental leave. In Germany, parents are legally entitled to childcare for their child from the age of one or over. At the same time, parents are jointly entitled to parental allowance for a maximum of 14 months of the child’s life (basic parental allowance). Nevertheless, 43% of heads of pre-primary centres report having children on their centre’s waiting list that are unable to enrol because of a lack of places, the second-highest share among the 12 OECD countries with available data (Figures B1.2 and B1.4).
Participation in early childhood education and care (ECEC) is common among children from the age of 3 in all OECD countries. In Germany, 96% of children between the age of 3 and the starting age of primary education (age 6 in Germany) were enrolled in ECEC in 2024, higher than the OECD average of 90% (Figure B1.1.). Enrolment rates for younger children vary widely across OECD countries. Among 2 year old children in Germany, 73% are enrolled in early childhood educational development programmes that meet the criteria of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) by combining education and care. This is an increase of 7 percentage points compared to 2015 and places Germany at the upper end of OECD countries with available data (Table B1.1.).
The number of primary and secondary schools varies across countries. Many countries have more primary than lower secondary schools, often reflecting the desire to provide education close to primary students’ homes while offering secondary students the greater choice of specialist subjects that can only be provided by larger schools. In Germany, there are 1.13 primary schools for each lower secondary school, below the OECD average of 1.97 (Figure B2.4).
In most countries, there is no strong alignment between trends in the number of students and trends in the number of schools at lower secondary level. In Germany, the number of lower secondary students increased by 0.47% annually between 2015 and 2024, while the number of lower secondary schools decreased by 0.34% annually over the same period. On average across the OECD, the number of students increased by 0.96%, while the number of schools decreased by 0.10% (Figure B2.1).
In many countries, inbound mobility has increased faster than outbound mobility among tertiary students. On average across the OECD, the share of inbound mobile students increased by 4 percentage points between 2015 and 2024, and the share of outbound mobile students increased by 1 percentage point. In Germany, the share of inbound students increased by 6 percentage points, while the share of outbound students increased by 1 percentage point (Table B4.3).
Germany remains an attractive destination for international students. The share of international students in tertiary education increased from 7% in 2015 to 13% in 2024 in Germany, while it increased on average from 8% to 12% across the OECD. India is the most common country of origin, accounting for 12% of international students in Germany, followed by China (9%), Türkiye (5%), Austria (5%) and Iran (4%) (Tables B4.3 and B4.4).
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en, Figure B4.3 and Table B4.2
By contrast, German students are less likely than their peers across the OECD to pursue degrees abroad. Only 4.5% pursue a tertiary degree in another country, compared with an OECD average of 6.4%. The most popular destinations for German students are Austria (31%), the Netherlands (16%), Switzerland (9%), the United States (5%) and the United Kingdom (5%) (Tables B4.3 and B4.4). In addition, a significant number of students participate in shorter exchange programmes without intending to obtain a degree abroad.
Science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) are fields of study that are especially important for innovation and economic growth. International students are more likely than national students to graduate in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields: On average across the OECD, 30% of international graduates obtained a STEM degree compared to 23% of national graduates. In Germany, the share of STEM graduates among international graduates is the second highest among OECD countries, at 51%. Among national students, the share of STEM graduates is 34%, higher than in any other OECD country (Figure 4).
Germany spends 4.4% of its gross domestic product (GDP) on educational institutions at primary to tertiary levels, less than the OECD average of 4.7% (including R&D). Most investment in education comes from public sources. On average across the OECD, government expenditure on educational institutions from primary to tertiary levels (based on initial funds) corresponded to 4% of GDP in 2023, while private expenditure corresponded to 0.6%. In Germany, government expenditure on educational institutions equalled 3.7% of GDP in 2023, while private expenditure equalled 0.6% (Table C1.4 and C1.8).2
Government expenditure on education accounted for 8.5% of total government expenditure on all services in Germany in 2023, below the OECD average of 9.8%. However, government expenditure per student from primary to tertiary education was USD 16 127, above the OECD average of USD 13 601, reflecting the overall high level of government expenditure in Germany (Tables C1.1 and C1.7).
In early childhood education, government expenditure per child has grown substantially between 2015 and 2023 in many OECD countries. This was also the case in Germany, where expenditure per child in pre-primary education increased from USD 9 397 to 12 719 compared to an average increase across the OECD from 8 142 to 10 067 (using constant 2020 USD) (Table C2.3).
Government expenditure on education tends to rise with the level of education. In primary education, expenditure per student was USD 12 825 in 2023 in Germany and USD 12 893 on average across the OECD. In general lower secondary education, it was USD 16 040 in Germany and USD 14 291 on average across the OECD. Thus, Germany is among the majority of OECD countries where expenditure is higher at lower secondary level than at primary level (Table C3.1).
Expenditure can be divided into capital and current expenditure: the former finances investment in assets such as infrastructure, while the latter covers regular operating costs. Current expenditure can be further broken down into staff compensation and other current expenditure, such as purchases of goods and services and routine maintenance. In Germany, 79% of current expenditure in primary educational institutions is dedicated to staff compensation compared to 79% on average across the OECD, while the remainder is dedicated to other current expenditure (Figure C3.3).
Germany invests considerable resources into vocational education. Vocational programmes are often more expensive than general programmes due to the need for specialised technical equipment, while at the same time, private contributions, for example from firms, cover a larger share of overall costs in some countries. In Germany, public and private expenditure per student is USD 19 238 in general upper secondary programmes and USD 27 880 in vocational upper secondary programmes (excluding salaries or other compensation paid to students in dual training programmes). This is higher than the OECD average of USD 13 388 in general programmes and considerably higher than the OECD average of USD 16 104 in vocational ones (Table C4.1).
On average across the OECD, government expenditure per student is the highest at bachelor’s and above levels despite being the levels where government expenditure accounts for the smallest share of total expenditure. Germany is among the countries where government expenditure constitutes a larger share of total expenditure compared to the OECD average. Government expenditure per student (including R&D) was USD 20 499 in 2023, corresponding to 83% of total expenditure on educational institutions at bachelor’s and above levels. In comparison, average government expenditure per student across the OECD was USD 16 405, amounting to 68% of total expenditure (Table C5.1).
Total government expenditure on education (inside and outside of educational institutions); primary to tertiary education
1. Data include or exclude some categories, please refer to the source table for more information.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en, Figure C1.2 and Table C1.7 (web only).
Besides expenditure on educational institutions, governments also finance education outside those institutions, e.g. through financial support for students or other government transfers to non-educational private entities. Government expenditure on education (i.e., inside and outside educational institutions) as a share of GDP provides an indication of the scale of public resources devoted to education relative to the country’s overall economic capacity. In OECD countries with available data for both years, average government expenditure on primary to tertiary education (based on final funds, inside and outside educational institutions) has decreased slightly from 4.4% of GDP in 2015 to 4.2% in 2023. In contrast, it increased from 4.0% to 4.1% in Germany, indicating that education spending in Germany has grown slightly faster than the economy (Figure 5, Table C1.7 and Figure C1.2).
As discussed above, most countries have increased their investment in pre-primary education in recent years. This is also reflected in the ratio of children to educators: Germany has a favourable ratio of 7.5 children per contact staff member in pre-primary education, compared with an OECD average of 9.4. Across the OECD, the number of children enrolled at this level decreased slightly by 2% between 2015 and 2024 while the number of educators increased by 14%, resulting in a 14% reduction in the child-to-educator ratio. In Germany, the number of children enrolled in pre-primary education increased by 17%, while the number of pre-primary educators also increased by 31%, resulting in an 11% decrease of the child-to-educator ratio (Data for chart D2.1).
Net statutory teaching time in hours per year, in public institutions
Note: Please refer to the source table for information on whether the data refer to typical, minimum or maximum hours.
1. Actual teaching time (in Latvia except for pre-primary level).
2. Reference year differs from 2023. Refer to the source table for details.
3. Average planned teaching time in each school at the beginning of the school year.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en, Figure D4.1 and Table D4.1.
Women form the majority of teachers at all levels of education except tertiary. Teachers in pre-primary education are almost entirely women with 96% of teachers being female on average across the OECD. The share of women among pre-primary teachers in Germany is slightly lower at 93%. At 66%, the share of female teachers in lower secondary education is lower, and it is below the OECD average of 68% (Table D5.1).
Regular teacher appraisal is common in some countries, but not in others. Germany uses an appraisal mechanism with mandatory appraisals of teachers, as do 16 out of 29 countries and economies with available data (Figure D7.1).
Appraisals of schools are more widespread than those of teachers, with school inspections being used in 24 out of 28 countries and economies with available data. Germany is among the majority of countries with a mandatory appraisal mechanism (Figure D6.1).
Contact
For more information on Education at a Glance 2026 and to access the full set of indicators, see: https://doi.org/10.1787/b4968bbc-en.
For more information on the methodology used during the data collection for each indicator, the references to the sources and the specific notes for each country, see Education at a Glance 2026: Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes, https://doi.org/10.1787/dcf64a14-en.
For general information on the methodology, please refer to the OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264304444-en.
Updated data can be found online at http://data-explorer.oecd.org/ and by following the StatLinks in the publication.
Explore, compare and visualise more data and analysis using the Education GPS: https://gpseducation.oecd.org/.
Questions can be directed to the Education at a Glance team at the OECD Directorate for Education and Skills: EDU.EAG@oecd.org.
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The full book is available in English: OECD (2026), Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/b4968bbc-en.
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← 1. Graduates of Trade and Technical Schools (Fachschulen, Bachelor's degree or equivalent, ISCED 6) who work as Fachlehrkräfte and Lehrkräfte für Fachpraxis in vocational upper secondary schools are considered fully qualified in the national context and play an important role in vocational upper secondary education, but are not counted as fully qualified for this data collection. The share classified as not fully qualified would therefore be somewhat lower if they were considered fully qualified. The figures also include substitute teachers, often employed on an hourly basis while still completing their studies.
← 2. Public and private sources add up to 4.3% of GDP, with the gap to the 4.4% mentioned at the outset of the paragraph accounted for by non-domestic sources, which represent 0.03% of GDP.