This chapter examines the role of social change and the evolution of gender norms in the promotion of women’s economic empowerment in Egypt. Using behavioural data, it analyses recent trends in attitudes towards gender equality. It also describes initiatives in Egypt and other countries to spread a culture of equality, for example by using role models and the media; working with men and boys, religious and community leaders, the family and the community; and adapting school curricula and parent-school engagement. The chapter concludes with several policy considerations for maintaining progress on spreading a culture of equality.
Women’s Economic Empowerment in Egypt
Abstract
Deeply rooted gender norms and stereotypes can hinder the effective implementation of legal reforms aimed at promoting women's economic empowerment in Egypt, especially those around unpaid care and household chores, early marriage and teenage pregnancies, and violence against women.
Despite improving attitudes towards gender equality, certain discriminatory norms remain in place, with many in society still viewing men as dominant in both economic and societal roles.
With women in Egypt spending many more hours on unpaid care than men, addressing the unequal distribution of unpaid care work presents an opportunity to increase women’s participation in the labour market. This will require policies and initiatives that promote shared responsibilities and challenge certain social norms.
Early marriage affects 26% of girls, contributing to high-school dropout rates and limiting their educational and economic opportunities, especially in rural areas. The Egyptian Government has taken significant steps to address this practice, including raising the legal marriage age and imposing sanctions on adults who marry minors and on parents involved in child marriage. Despite improvements, early marriage continues to be an issue in Egypt.
A whole-of-society approach is essential to spread a culture of equality in Egypt. Raising awareness and involving local communities and their leaders are key for transforming gender norms and promoting equality, as they can address deeply entrenched societal issues effectively. Harnessing both traditional and social media platforms is a powerful approach to challenge and reshape gender stereotypes, as is adapting school curricula to encourage more equitable perceptions of gender roles and promote the visibility of women in leadership and non-traditional roles.
Promoting women's economic empowerment is inherently linked to addressing gender norms and stereotypes. Certain social norms can undermine the effective implementation of legal reforms and public policies, perpetuating existing inequalities. As discussed in Chapter 3, legal frameworks may sometimes reflect these norms, either by upholding them or by failing to address existing inequalities. In other cases, legal frameworks can be more progressive than prevailing social norms, but challenges in enforcement and implementation can limit their impact.
In Egypt, as in other countries, deeply engrained social norms often resist change, making it difficult to implement reforms that challenge traditional gender roles and advance women's rights. Therefore, fostering a culture of equality within society and the family is crucial to any strategy aimed at enhancing women's economic participation. Schools, religious and community leaders, and the media are essential allies in this effort.
This chapter approaches the issue from two perspectives. It first examines recent trends in the evolution of perceptions, attitudes and behaviours of the population, both male and female, towards gender roles, stereotypes, and norms in Egypt (Section 4.2). It then outlines the role of awareness raising, community leaders, role models, the media, and education in fostering the spread of a culture of equality throughout the country (Section 4.3). The chapter concludes with considerations for policy makers (Section 4.4).
For Egyptian authorities to increase women’s labour force participation and economic empowerment effectively, anticipating and understanding whether the public will accept or reject legal reforms and public policies is crucial, especially when these reforms aim for social transformation. While promoting female economic participation may seem necessary to legislators or policymakers, it may not be as evident to the broader population. Therefore, implementing policies to support women’s economic participation requires a deep understanding of traditional gender roles within society and the family, as well as the associated norms and stereotypes. This approach notably requires the development and dissemination of innovative gender-sensitive data, including surveys that measure public opinions and attitudes, and time-use surveys.
Gender norms have improved significantly in Egypt
Attitudes towards gender equality have improved over the past decade. Data from the Arab Barometer survey (Arab Barometer, 2022[1]) indicate a shift in gender stereotypes. For example, the share of people who believe university education is more important for men than for women has dropped significantly – from 34% in 2011 to 12% in 2022. Similarly, those who think men make better political leaders than women declined from 90% to 69% over the same period (Figure 1.1). A 2023 World Bank qualitative survey highlights growing recognition of the value of women’s labour force participation, with women pointing to benefits such as independence, agency and self-worth, while men increasingly view it as essential to meet household financial needs (Zeitoun et al., 2023[2]).
Despite these positive developments, some restrictive gender norms remain prevalent in Egyptian society. While progress is evident, societal perceptions often still favour men as dominant figures in economic and social roles, limiting women’s economic empowerment. For instance, in 2022, 82% of Egyptians still believed that being a housewife is as fulfilling as working for pay, a higher rate than in neighbouring countries such as Tunisia (73%), Jordan (72%), Algeria (70%) or Morocco (62%) (OECD, 2023[3]).1 The 2022 Arab Barometer survey revealed that over 60% of respondents agreed that a man should have the final say in all family decisions. This view is shared by more than half of Egyptian women, underscoring the deep-rooted nature of these perceptions (Arab Barometer, 2022[1]).
These challenges continue to impact women’s opportunities in education and the workforce (OECD, 2024[4]). Findings from the World Values Survey reveal that over 70% of Egyptians believe that men make better business executives than women (Inglehart et al., 2022[5]). Challenges also persist in the labour market: 98% of men and 88% of women in Egypt uphold the idea that men should have access to jobs before women when work opportunities are scarce. Furthermore, 43% of women report the need for permission from a father or husband to start a business, which can limit women’s entrepreneurial opportunities (OECD, 2024[6]).
For each statement, share of the population agreeing or strongly agreeing with the statement, 2022
Note: Data on the share of population agreeing or strongly agreeing with the statement "a man should have a final say in all decisions concerning the family" are from the 2017 Arab Barometer survey result instead of 2011, when that information for 2011 was not available.
Source: Arab Barometer (2022[1]), Arab Barometer Wave VII, https://www.arabbarometer.org/surveys/arab-barometer-wave-vii/; Arab Barometer (2017[7]), Arab Barometer Wave IV, https://www.arabbarometer.org/surveys/arab-barometer-wave-iv/; Arab Barometer (2011[8]) Arab Baromoter Wave II, https://www.arabbarometer.org/surveys/arab-barometer-wave-ii/. Access in July 2024.
Better shared care responsibilities can enhance women’s labour market participation
The expectation that women are the main carers contributes to an unequal distribution of care work and household responsibilities, and remains a significant barrier to increasing women’s participation in Egypt’s labour market. As in most countries around the world, women in Egypt continue to undertake the majority of unpaid care and domestic work. According to the fifth edition of the Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) (see Box 3.1, Chapter 3), Egyptian women work on average 5.4 hours per day on unpaid care and domestic work, compared to only 0.6 hours for men (OECD, 2023[3]) (see Chapter 6 for a fuller analysis).
These persistent imbalances reflect deeply rooted social norms that often associate women with caregiving roles, whereas men are viewed as breadwinners (OECD, 2024[4]). Women are frequently expected to prioritise domestic responsibilities over professional aspirations. Such views are widespread across society, with only 13% of respondents disagreeing with the statement that “household income is the responsibility of the man only” (Zeitoun et al., 2023[2]). Over half of the population thinks the male head of the household should handle budgeting and spending, while close to 70% of men and 60% of women think women should be primarily responsible for helping children study (Arab Barometer, 2022[1]). A 2023 World Bank qualitative survey further highlights that some men express concerns about women achieving economic independence, fearing it could shift household dynamics or diminish men’s role in the family (Zeitoun et al., 2023[2]). Indeed, data from the World Value Survey reveal that 57% of the Egyptian population agreed or strongly agreed that a woman earning more money than her husband is likely to cause problems – a higher share then the 50% MENA average and above the 23% average in OECD countries (Figure 1.2). Concerns about the impact of women’s economic participation on children are also prominent. For instance, 77% of respondents in Egypt believe that children suffer when a mother works for pay, compared to 70% in MENA, 62% in Asia, and 55% in Africa on average (Figure 1.2) (OECD, 2023[9]).
Practical challenges further compound these issues. In addition to societal norms, a shortage of workplace nurseries and similar support services often limits women’s ability to join the workforce (Zeitoun et al., 2023[2]) (Chapter 6). When asked about the most challenging barrier to entry into the workplace for women, 38% of the Egyptian population pointed to the lack of childcare, a higher share than in most MENA countries surveyed2 (Arab Barometer, 2022[1]). In response, the Government of Egypt has introduced several initiatives to facilitate women’s access to affordable childcare. Notably, in 2022, EGP 250 million were allocated from the national budget to support childcare services. The Ministry of Social Solidarity, in collaboration with several NGOs, also contributed to the development and improvement of 991 nurseries, including 3 567 classrooms, and the enhancement of 21 family centres (NCW, 2024[10]). Although there is growing acceptance of women working, around 75% of the population believes that women should work primarily out of financial necessity, undermining the broader benefits of women’s participation in the labour market (Zeitoun et al., 2023[2]).
For each statement, share of the population agreeing or strongly agreeing with the statement, 2022
Note: Data are from wave 7 of the World Values Survey (WVS) (2017-2022) and from wave 6 of WVS (2010-2014) when data were not available for wave 7. In Panels A and C, the MENA average is based on data from 14 MENA countries out of 19; data are missing for Bahrain, Djibouti, Oman, Syria and the United Arab Emirates. In Panels B and D, the MENA average is based on data from 13 MENA countries out of 19; data are missing for Bahrain, Djibouti, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria and the United Arab Emirates.
Source: OECD (2023[9]), Gender, Institutions and Development Database (GID-DB) 2023, https://doi.org/10.1787/7b0af638-en; Inglehart et al. (2022[5]), World Values Survey: All Rounds – Country-Pooled Datafile Version 3.0, https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocumentationWVL.jsp.
Preventing early marriage improves girls’ higher educational attainment and labour market participation
The Egyptian Government has taken significant steps to close the gender gaps in enrolment and educational attainment, but customs such as early marriage still hinder girls’ progress. Today, nearly all girls and boys are enrolled in primary education, and in 2024 the gross enrolment rate stood at 97% for girls and boys (World Bank, 2025[11]) Furthermore, in 2025, women’s gross tertiary enrolment rate (39%) is actually higher than men’s by two percentage points (World Bank, 2025[11]), reflecting a trend seen across many MENA countries (see Chapter 5 for more detail on education outcomes and policy). Over the past two decades, the educational attainment of girls in secondary education has also significantly increased. In 2020, 68% of girls attained at least secondary education level, against 67% of their male counterparts. However, challenges remain, as the share of out-of-school children in upper-secondary education remains high: 24.1% for girls and 22.7% for boys in 2021 (World Bank, 2025[12]). Early marriage remains a significant driver of school dropouts among girls. While boys tend to cite poor performance, a lack of interest in education, and getting a job as primary reasons for dropping out, 53% of girls cite marriage as the primary reason for leaving school (Ministry of Education and Technical Education, 2023[13]).
Despite legal prohibitions, child marriage continues to affect girls disproportionately. Over 26% of girls aged 15 to 19 years old are married, divorced or widowed3, compared to just 1% of boys (OECD, 2023[9]). Egypt has one of the highest rates of early marriage in the region (Figure 1.3). Early marriage is more prevalent in rural areas, particularly in Upper Egypt, where the median age at first marriage was 19.4 years in 2017, compared to 22.4 years in urban regions (UNICEF, 2017[14]). In some economically deprived areas the rates are even higher; for example, a 2019 study found that 48% of married women in the most underserved areas of the Menoufia Governorate were married before turning 18 (Alsaqa et al., 2019[15]). While the available data on early marriage in Egypt disaggregated by geographic area are outdated, they still offer insights into the rural-urban inequalities that persist across the country. However, it is important to note that these data may no longer accurately reflect the current situation, particularly in light of recent social and policy reforms, including those introduced under the “Hayah Karima” (Decent Life) initiative (United Nations, 2024[16]). While societal norms and economic considerations often underpin early marriages, they are also rooted in long-standing perceptions of women’s roles within the family and broader society. Factors such as family honour, religious misinterpretations and financial pressures – where marriage is viewed as a path out of poverty – further contribute to this practice (J-PAL/UNICEF, 2021[17]). The tradition of providing a customary payment or gift by the groom or his family to the bride or her family plays a complex role; while it can place financial strain on families, it is also seen as providing security for women, as marriage contracts guarantee the return of marital gifts in cases of divorce (Deng et al., 2023[18]).
Child marriage rate as % of boys and girls aged 15-19 years-old, 2023
Note: Percentage of boys and girls aged 15-19 years who have been or are still married, divorced, or widowed.
Source: OECD (2023[9]), Gender, Institutions and Development Database (GID-DB) 2023, https://doi.org/10.1787/7b0af638-en.
The consequences of early marriage extend beyond education to also affect the labour market. Adolescent motherhood is prevalent, with Egypt's rate of adolescent births standing at 42 for every 1 000 girls aged 15 to 19 in 2023 (World Bank, 2026[19]), which is 7 percentage points above the MENA region's average. This trend exacerbates educational and economic disadvantages, as young mothers typically complete fewer years of schooling and are therefore less likely to participate in paid employment. Consequently, many young women are unable to enter the labour market, contributing to Egypt’s high NEET (not in employment, education, or training) rate for young women aged 15-24, which stood at 36.3% in 2024 according to data from the ILO, below the MENA average of 43.7% but well above the 14.9% of boys and young men in the same age group (ILO, 2025[20]) (Chapter 5). Recognising these challenges, the Egyptian Government has implemented important measures to curb early marriage and support girls’ education and empowerment (Box 1.1).
The Egyptian Government stepped up efforts to combat child and early marriage in 2008 with the enactment of the Egyptian Child Law No. 126. This law raised the minimum marriage age for both girls and boys from 14 to 18 years. However, informal practices and societal norms continue to perpetuate child marriage, making it difficult to eliminate completely (J-PAL/UNICEF, 2021[17]). To address these challenges, the government launched the National Strategic Plan for Prevention of Early Marriage in 2014, aiming to cut child marriage by half within five years. This plan, developed by the National Population Council, uses a rights-based approach to uphold children's rights and actively involves religious organisations. It also focuses on empowering girls to resist societal and familial pressures, as well as raising awareness about the negative effects of child marriage through community campaigns (J-PAL/UNICEF, 2021[17]).
Despite these efforts, the prevalence of child marriage is still significant, with 26% of girls aged 15 to 19 being married (OECD, 2023[9]). To strengthen these measures, a new draft law was introduced in April 2022 which imposes imprisonment and fines on adults who marry minors, and sanctions officiants and parents involved in child marriages (Egypt State Information Service, 2022[21]). Additionally, the Ministry of Social Solidarity launched the Combatting Child Marriage campaign in July 2022 with the European Union, United Kingdom, and United Nations Development Programme to educate the public about the economic, social and well-being impacts of child marriage (UNDP, 2022[22]). However, legal measures to report child marriage are still lacking. Communities in rural areas, where marriages of girls are more prevalent, have a key role to play in identifying girls at risk and reporting the perpetrators.
Beyond preventing child marriage, it is also crucial to support girls whose education has been interrupted due to early marriage. These girls, especially those who are young mothers, need opportunities to re-enter the education system. This requires comprehensive support, including financial aid, psychological services and childcare, to ensure they can attend school. Examples from Argentina and Australia offer insights into effective support models. In Argentina, Maternity Rooms in secondary schools provide education and resources for young mothers, and early childhood development sessions for their children (UNICEF, 2021[23]). In Australia, programmes like the JET Childcare Fee Assistance subsidy offer financial support for childcare, enabling young parents to work or study.
Violence against women and girls remains a concern, rooted partly in its social acceptance among both men and women. Although this chapter does not cover violence against women and girls in detail (the issue is explored in Chapter 3), it is important to note that 35% of women consider a husband to be justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances. Additionally, 15% of women declare not feeling safe to walk home at night, compared to 8% of men (OECD, 2023[9]). The Egyptian Government has deployed efforts to combat violence against women and girls, including the adoption of national strategies, the establishment of a One Stop Shop, criminalising child marriage, imposing stricter penalties for sexual harassment, and organising awareness campaigns (NCW, 2024[10]). The government also launched the Noura programme in 2021, a girl-centric initiative aimed at creating a supportive ecosystem for girls’ empowerment and eliminating various forms of harmful practices such as child marriage, female genital mutilation and discriminatory gender norms. The programme focuses on strengthening adolescent girls’ life skills, health awareness and financial literacy, while also engaging families and communities to challenge deeply rooted stereotypes and social expectations (NCW, 2024[10]).
Better data on gender-based beliefs and attitudes are crucial for effective policies
Reliable and up-to-date information on Egyptians’ beliefs and attitudes is crucial to design and implement public policies supporting women’s economic empowerment effectively. Efforts to improve the collection, analysis and dissemination of sex-disaggregated data are key, due to the hidden nature of discriminatory social norms and the current lack of comprehensive data that are comparable between countries and over time. Egypt, supported by development partners, could minimise costs by integrating gender indicators into existing surveys while also leveraging emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and big data to enhance data availability and analysis (OECD, 2023[9]). Egypt was the first Arab and African country to adhere to the OECD Recommendation on Artificial Intelligence in 2021.
Given the pervasive nature of discriminatory perceptions and practices affecting women’s economic empowerment, efforts are needed to encourage a change in attitudes across all levels of society. This requires the involvement of virtually all stakeholders: both men and women, families and communities, the education system, community and religious leaders, and the media. Communication strategies play a crucial role in reinforcing the message that women’s economic empowerment is not a zero-sum game, but rather a positive change that benefits society as a whole. This section first looks at initiatives being used to involve all key stakeholders in spreading a culture of equality, through role models, working with boys and men, engaging religious and community leaders, and using social media. It then outlines how the education system can play an important role.
Raising awareness and mobilising local communities can shift attitudes and mindsets
Public awareness campaigns are a cornerstone of Egypt’s strategy to transform gender norms. Recognising that change often occurs within communities, the involvement of local actors such as public authorities, private sector representatives and civil society organisations is essential. Egypt has launched several initiatives aimed at eradicating harmful practices and educating the population about the rights of girls and women (Box 1.2).
In 2017, the National Council for Women (NCW) launched the Ta’a Marbouta initiative to advocate and communicate on the promotion of women’s economic empowerment (see the section on the media below). The Ministry of Social Solidarity, in collaboration with UNDP, also implemented the Waai (“awareness”) advocacy programme in 2020, which aims to reach vulnerable populations through 12 interlinked social messages around child marriage, female genital mutilation, and women’s economic empowerment, among others. These social messages are delivered through a diverse communication and outreach plan, for example using local dialects and idioms in communication campaigns, organising house visits and seminars, relying on community and religious leaders, and creating social media content and advertisement. The Waai programme especially targets beneficiaries of the Takaful and Karama unconditional and conditional cash transfer programmes,4 Egypt’s national flagship social protection programme, launched in 2015 with support from the World Bank. Campaigns such as Protect her from FGM and the national girls’ empowerment Initiative Dawwie (“voice that resonates with an impact”) work at the grassroots level, engaging community leaders, religious authorities and local organisations to change the attitudes that support practices such as female genital mutilation (J-PAL/UNICEF, 2021[17]). Dawwie was launched in 2021 in partnership with UNICEF and uses a participatory approach to engage communities in discussions about gender norms, empowering both girls and boys. It encompasses various activities such as storytelling circles, intergenerational dialogues, and community dialogues showcasing positive Dawwie role models. The initiative has reached over 500 000 people across 21 governorates (J-PAL/UNICEF, 2021[17]).
Using role models can be a powerful way to change attitudes
Encouraging the visibility of role models for girls and boys, as well as women and men, plays a key role in shifting perceptions surrounding gender roles. For example, highlighting women who excel in traditionally male-dominated sectors, such as business leadership and STEM fields, can inspire the next generation and demonstrate the tangible benefits of gender equality. Similarly, normalising men’s involvement in domestic responsibilities can challenge traditional norms and encourage positive behavioural shifts. Globally, initiatives such as Germany’s FRAUEN unternehmen5 and Mexico’s Niña STEM showcase the power of role models. By connecting young girls with successful women in technology, engineering and business, these programmes break stereotypes and illustrate that gender equality creates opportunities for all.
The Egyptian Government has made significant strides in enhancing the visibility and representation of women in leadership and decision-making roles. The increase in the number of women holding parliamentary seats - from 14.9% of women in parliament in 2015 to 27.7% in 20226 (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2022[24]) - and ministerial positions is not only a reflection of political will, but also of a strategy to provide role models who challenge traditional gender stereotypes. By showcasing women in leadership positions, these efforts seek to normalise the idea of women as leaders and decision makers, thus encouraging more women to pursue such roles (OECD/ILO/CAWTAR, 2020[25]); (Zeitoun et al., 2023[2]).
Educating boys and men can help promote gender equality
To achieve meaningful social impact, programmes must also specifically engage men and boys, who often hold decision-making power regarding women’s participation in society and the labour force. Interventions that redefine perceptions of masculinity and promote gender equality are key. For example, in 2017 the NCW launched the Because I am a Man campaign which aims at raising awareness among boys and men on the necessity and benefits of gender equality. Studies show that starting sensitisation at an early age can produce lasting change. The NCW’s Noura programme, described above, aims to engage boys aged 10-14 in supporting girls’ empowerment (NCW, 2024[10]). Successful approaches from other countries provide valuable insights too (Box 1.3).
A school-based programme in India, which engaged adolescents in gender equality discussions over two years, demonstrated long-term improvements in attitudes around equality (Dhar, Jain and Jayachandran, 2022[26]). In Indonesia, the Association for Women in Small Business Assistance (ASPPUK) promotes a more inclusive environment that not only empowers rural women but also helps men gain a better understanding of the importance of women’s economic empowerment for families and communities. It involves male facilitators and engages men in the process of strengthening women’s digital skills, access to finance, and leadership and decision making (OECD, 2025[27]). A study conducted in Saudi Arabia showed that while 82% of men supported female labour force participation, 72% underestimated other men’s support for women working outside the home (Bursztyn, González and Yanagizawa-Drott, 2020[28]). In misperceiving other men’s opinions, they were led to discourage their wives from working in order to abide by perceived informal social codes. When men were informed of other men’s actual opinions on the matter, they changed their views, leading to a 36% increase in the share of men who signed up their wives for job searching services (Bursztyn, González and Yanagizawa-Drott, 2020[28]). These findings underscore the value of awareness campaigns that not only challenge stereotypes, but also provide clarity on societal attitudes (J-PAL/UNICEF, 2021[17]).
Equipping religious and community leaders with the tools to advocate for equality
Religious and community leaders play a central role in shaping societal norms in Egypt and across the MENA region. Their influence and credibility make them key allies in promoting positive change. Equipping leaders with the tools to advocate for equality can drive further societal transformation. For example, in Indonesia, religious leaders have publicly opposed child marriage, using both religious interpretations and constitutional principles to support their message. Egypt is taking similar steps to leverage the leadership of community and religious figures to challenge harmful practices and foster a culture of inclusion and empowerment. Under the initiative of the NCW, in partnership with the Ministry of Endowments, Al-Azhar, and three churches, a group of 422 female religious leaders worked closely to raise awareness on women’s rights and empowerment. They organised meetings, workshops and home visits to address religious misconceptions, including around FGM and violence against women. They also promoted messages of tolerance, acceptance and peace. As part of the National Project for the Development of the Egyptian Family, the NCW also collaborated with male religious leaders to engage their communities and participate in awareness efforts through on-the-ground initiatives such as Dawwar Campaigns (NCW, 2024[10]).
Using the media can combat gender stereotypes and negative social norms
Using the media to induce a shift in social and gender norms can be very effective, notably by portraying equal roles between men and women and targeting various groups of society. By representing and reinforcing cultural norms through television, films, advertisements and social media, the media industry can influence how people perceive gender roles and relate to role models (UN Women, 2018[29]). While traditional media can reach broad audiences, including older generations, digitalisation and the exponential use of social media holds significant potential to reach the youth, especially as over half of Egypt’s population is now aged 25 or younger. This could allow for younger generations to change their attitudes and beliefs, with studies showing that restrictive beliefs are particularly prevalent in Egypt among younger and less-educated men (Zeitoun et al., 2023[2]). However, while social media can sometimes improve women’s well-being through collective dialogue and engagement, provide an outlet for self-expression and encourage women’s participation in social, economic and political activities (Shata and Seelig, 2021[30]), it can also have the opposite effect, especially given that patriarchal and traditional gender roles are increasingly promoted through social media.
Recognising the need to enhance the way women are represented in the media, several initiatives in Egypt are seeking to promote more balanced portrayals and support progress toward gender equality. Some researchers have recently noted a positive evolution within advertising towards more equal gender representations (Abboud, 2020[31]). In collaboration with several international organisations, the NCW launched the Ta’a Marbouta campaign in 2017 as an integrated media advocacy campaign that used several media types (television, advertising, newspapers, Facebook, etc.) and a variety of content, such as songs, testimonials, infographics and storytelling (UN Women, 2017[32]). Ahead of the Curve, on behalf of UN Women, has created a Media Monitoring Toolkit to support media producers in improving their depiction of women, men and the power dynamics of the relationship between them (UN Women, 2018[29]). Efforts to leverage both traditional and digital media to challenge harmful social norms and raise awareness on gender equality include campaigns such as Taht El Wasaya, and initiatives like Noura animations (NCW, 2024[10]). Evaluations of mass media programmes in other countries prove that such programmes can be effective in changing attitudes about violence against women (Box 1.4) (J-PAL/UNICEF, 2021[17]).
In rural Uganda, a media campaign using videos focused on reporting gender-based violence led to an increase in women's willingness to speak out about their experiences and a reduction in violence against women within the community (Green, Wilke and Cooper, 2020[33]). Similarly, in Nigeria, an entertainment TV series designed to discourage domestic violence resulted in a lower likelihood of men justifying such behaviour (Banerjee, La Ferrara and Orozco, 2019[34]). Popular media can play an important role. In Brazil, Ferrara, Chong and Duryea (2012[35]) found statistically significant links between women having access to soap operas that featured independent female characters who had few, if any, children, and the country’s rapid decline in fertility. The #inFAIRness campaign, developed in the Philippines, actively engages men as advocates for women's economic empowerment using media platforms to promote gender-equitable norms (Loiseau and Beck, 2024[36]). In Côte d'Ivoire, local radio broadcasts and mobile phone videos have been employed to shift attitudes, emphasising the importance of both parents' involvement in early childhood education and care (Loiseau and Beck, 2024[36]).
School curricula can be adapted to promote positive attitudes towards gender equality
Education plays a crucial role in shaping the population’s opinions, attitudes and behaviours and therefore needs to be at the centre of Egypt’s strategy to combat restrictive gender norms and stereotypes. School curricula and textbooks are central to the learning process and reflect the values and messages that the government wants to convey to the population (OECD, 2023[37]). In recent years, Egypt has taken important steps to adapt the school curricula to promote gender equality and women’s and girls’ empowerment. A major reform of the general education curriculum began in 2017 and has been implemented progressively, reaching Grade 5 in 2023. The reformed textbooks highlight Arab female role models such as scholars and influential leaders, and encourage critical thinking about cultural norms. The new curriculum distinguishes between positive customs (for example respect for elders) and harmful practices, such as female genital mutilation and early marriage. Several OECD countries have also implemented policies to promote gender-balanced representation in curricula and course materials. For example, in 2018 Sweden revised the pre-school curriculum to emphasise the importance of counteracting gender patterns at the earliest stage of children’s development (OECD, 2023[38]).
As well as revising school textbooks, it is also crucial to equip teachers with teaching practices that promote equality between men and women. For instance, equality between men and women has been included in teacher training since 2021 in Egypt (World Bank, 2024[39]), while the Mind the Gap project aims at preparing practitioners and educators to address stereotypes and unconscious gender biases in Belgium, Italy, Portugal and Spain (OECD, 2023[38]).
Engaging families and communities can help in creating equal education
A broad education strategy aimed at challenging power relations and gender norms should also build on the dialogue and interactions between the school environment, families and community stakeholders (UNICEF, 2021[23]). One essential pre-requisite for the success of such a whole-of-school approach is the capacity to engage relevant stakeholders – committees for school management, parent-teacher committees, as well as community and religious leaders – around the common objective of transforming stereotypes, attitudes, norms and practices. In addition to the impacts on attitudes and norms, this consultative process can significantly enhance children’s labour market skills. For example, the beneficial effects will likely be stronger among girls from poor backgrounds, whose parents are likely to be more willing to keep them in education if they perceive that through schooling their girls will learn more than by working at home from an early age (Assaad, Levison and Dang, 2010[40]). As the SIGI Country study in Côte d’Ivoire showed, while boys’ education is prioritised when resources are scarce, a compelling factor for sending girls to school is the actual return on their education, as they may hold better paying jobs (OECD, 2022[41]). Several countries have implemented successful programmes to engage parents in supporting gender equality within schools, which might offer some inspiration for Egypt (Box 1.5).
International practices include Zambia’s Girls 2030 programme, which focuses on vulnerable girls by reducing dropout risks in the critical transition from primary to secondary school education, and providing career assistance in their access to the labour market (UNICEF, 2021[23]). It involves the creation of skills and career clubs at school, programmes on sexual and reproductive health, financial literacy and career guidance. District career and skills camps allow girls to work with role models. Girls can spend a two-week work internship placement programme during school holidays. In early 2021, the programme was implemented in 150 schools with 5 560 girls in school clubs, 256 girls attending career camps and 50 internship placements. The programme is run by the Ministry of General Education with UNICEF and Restless Development.
Pedagogical guidelines implemented by the Chilean Government encourage schools to take a more proactive approach to engaging families by exploring options for co-operation with parents’ associations (OECD, 2021[42]). The guidelines include an information video that parents can watch before participating in a discussion meeting. In Ireland, guidelines prepared by the Ministry of Education and Science provide the parents of children from primary and secondary schools with information about school obligations in relation to gender equality and the supportive role that parents can play (Council of Europe, 2015) (EIGE, 2020). The Spanish Irene programme informs and trains parents as part of a wider initiative aimed at preventing sexual violence committed by young cohorts in secondary education (Council of Europe, 2015). In Northern Morocco, local organisation Mhashass, in partnership with UN Women, has initiated gender-equality and masculinity training for high-school boys in the community, enabling them to become training facilitators. This has contributed to a gender-sensitive community environment (UN Women, 2018).
While Egypt has been actively exploring options and taking steps to spread a culture of equality in recent years, the following policy considerations could be taken forward:
Recommendation 1. Build a stronger evidence base on social norms and gender discrimination
Reliable and up-to-date information on Egyptians’ beliefs and attitudes is crucial to design and implement public policies supporting women’s economic empowerment effectively. Egypt can:
Policy consideration 1. Continue supporting initiatives that enhance the collection of sex-disaggregated and intersectional data to build the evidence base on gender norms and stereotypes.
Policy consideration 2. Minimise costs by integrating gender indicators into existing surveys and leveraging technologies such as AI and big data.
Recommendation 2. Tackle early marriage and support teenage mothers
Early marriage affects girls’ educational outcomes and their labour market participation, and continues to be an issue in Egypt despite important legal reforms. To go further, Egypt can:
Policy consideration 1. Strengthen efforts to prevent early marriage through awareness campaigns and community-based interventions.
Policy consideration 2. Provide targeted support to teenage mothers, including financial assistance, psychological support, and childcare services to facilitate their re-entry into the educational system.
Recommendation 3. Normalise the equal sharing of care responsibilities
The expectation that women are the main carers remains a significant barrier to increasing women’s participation in the labour market. In addition to efforts to expand access to childcare and long-term care, and increase paid paternity and parental leave (Chapter 6), Egypt can:
Policy consideration 1. Strengthen initiatives that normalise the equal distribution of unpaid care work between men and women.
Policy consideration 2. Initiate strategies that challenge the perception of caregiving as a responsibility only for women.
Recommendation 4. Spread a culture of equality through community campaigns and use of media
Discriminatory perceptions and practices still affect women’s economic empowerment. Communication strategies are needed that reinforce the message that women’s economic empowerment is a positive change that benefits society as a whole. Egypt can:
Policy consideration 1. Expand campaigns that involve religious and community leaders to raise awareness on girls’ and women’s rights, especially in rural and underserved areas.
Policy consideration 2. Build on existing initiatives led by NCW to foster visible female role models and community-based advocacy.
Policy consideration 3. Continue leveraging traditional and social media platforms to promote positive representations of women in leadership and non-traditional roles, including content that encourages more equitable gender norms and challenges harmful stereotypes.
Recommendation 5. Integrate gender equality into education systems
Education plays a crucial role in shaping the population’s opinions, attitudes and behaviours and therefore needs to be at the centre of Egypt’s strategy to combat restrictive gender norms and stereotypes. Steps to take include:
Policy consideration 1. Modernise school curricula to promote gender-equal values from an early age, ensuring female role models are represented and gender biases in content are addressed.
Policy consideration 2. Train educators to adopt inclusive teaching practices that promote equality and challenge gender stereotypes in the classroom.
Policy consideration 3. Encourage greater collaboration between schools, families and community actors to promote values of equality through both formal and informal educational spaces.
Policy consideration 4. Foster collaboration with families and communities to encourage more equitable gender norms.
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← 1. This sample is not representative of the entire population.
← 2. As a comparison, the share of the population who considers that the lack of childcare poses the most challenging barrier to entry into the workplace for women is 26% in Algeria, 28% in Iraq, 34% in Jordan, 22% in Lebanon, 21% in Libya, 32% in Morocco and Tunisia, and 24% in the Palestinian Authority.
← 3. These data come from the OECD Social Institutions & Gender Index database, which is based on the World Marriage Data (2019) and Unicef Child Marriage data (2022).
← 4. The Takaful and Karam conditional and unconditional cash transfer programme is one of Egypt’s largest investments in human capital development and was launched in 2015 with the support of a USD 400 million World Bank programme. It is implemented by the Ministry of Social Solidarity. As of December 2023, the programme has reached 4.67 million households (around 17 million citizens) and 74% of card holders are women.
← 5. The Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Protection launched the FRAUEN unternehmen initiative to encourage women to become self-employed and to inspire girls to become entrepreneurs: https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Dossier/frauen-unternehmen.html.
← 6. The share of women in parliament comes from the global data on national parliaments IPU Parline, which provides the monthly ranking of women in national parliaments in all countries.