The first part of this chapter presents an overall analysis on patterns of mobility of people since the 2021 Progress Report and introduces policy recommendations. The second part presents the indicators that support the analysis and recommendations:
• M1. Migration flows
• M2. Migration stocks
• M3. Mobility agreements, frameworks, and projects
• M4. Tourism
• M5. Visa requirements for tourism and business
The role of human mobility in regional integration
The movement of people is an important driver of economic and social development and has been recognised from the outset of the Barcelona Process in 1995 as a key component of integration in the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) region. Mobility opportunities for jobs, education, business, and tourism allow for the exchange of knowledge, skills, and human capital between countries.
The Mediterranean region, indeed, has long served as a hub for human movement, facilitating the exchange of culture, goods, and ideas across its shores. At the fifth UfM Ministerial on Employment and Labour of May 2022, ministers reaffirmed commitments to promoting connected economies and creating jobs that work for people, also responding to youth and gender specific issues.
Monitoring people mobility in the UfM. Characterised by diverse economic, socio-cultural, and demographic conditions, UfM member countries exhibit varying patterns and forms of mobility. These can be described using two main categories:
Migration, in which a person settles in the country of destination, whether temporarily or permanently. Motives include labour migration, family migration, and migration for education purposes.
Travel, a form of mobility that does not involve settlement in the country of destination. This category encompasses tourism, as well as some forms of business-related mobility or student and/or research mobility, e.g. attending a conference.
Taking into consideration the evolution of regional and global patterns in mobility and related legal and policy frameworks, this chapter examines the current state of mobility across the Euro-Mediterranean region. It aims to identify opportunities for enhanced regional integration and sustainable economic growth through different types of cross-border movements, offering a perspective on both the complexities and potential of human mobility in the region. In light of this, the report does not analyse forced and irregular migration in UfM countries, including climate-related displacement (Box 4.1), despite recognising its importance in shaping effective migration policies.
The set of indicators (M1 to M5) analysed in the chapter monitors recent trends in migration flows and stocks (M1 and M2), the mobility agreements and frameworks that regulate the movement of people (M3), mobility for tourism (M4), and the visa policies for tourism and business travel (M5). While migration flows and stocks are not considered a direct measure of regional integration, these indicators offer important insights into the dynamics of intra-regional migration and serve as basis for formulating recommendations that strengthen the integration potential of intra-regional mobility.
The UfM region has a longstanding history of intra-regional movements both within and across its sub-regions. Current migration and mobility patterns are shaped by a range of structural and socio-economic factors, including demographic dynamics, labour market mismatches and economic disparities between countries of origin and destination.
Intra-UfM migration has been on the rise in the last two decades. Despite the disruption in cross-border mobility during the pandemic, intra-UfM migration stocks continued to grow by 6% between 2021 and 2024. The region is now hosting close to 35 million intra-UfM migrants. Intra-EU migration continues to be the most important source of intra-regional migration, but migration from all sub-regions towards the EU has also been on the rise since 2021.
While migration can have positive development impacts through, among other things, better labour allocation across the region and remittance and diaspora investments in countries of origin, continued high level of emigration from the Western Balkans and the MENA region has led to concerns over brain drain and loss of workers in key sectors.
In the EU, the aging population and shrinking labour force are reinforcing the historical role of migration in filling labour market gaps. In 2023, the European Commission reported skilled worker shortages across multiple sectors with high-, medium-, and low-skilled job vacancies on the rise. Sectors facing persistent labour shortages include construction, manufacturing, information and communication technology (ICT), transportation, professional services, health and long-term care.
In response to these challenges, several new bilateral and multilateral agreements and frameworks have been introduced to support intra-regional labour migration, notably through a focus on training and attraction of skills and talent from abroad through Talent Partnerships, between the EU and Morocco, Egypt and Tunisia.
In the Western Balkans, high unemployment - coupled with structural challenges and development gaps relative to neighbouring EU countries - continues to drive migration pressures. Continued high levels of emigration over the past decade has resulted in one-fifth of the population now living abroad, creating development benefits in terms of remittances and diaspora investments but also challenges in terms of reduction in labour and skills supply in the local labour markets (OECD, 2023).
In the Southern Mediterranean, a growing working-age population faces high youth unemployment and a mismatch between skills and labour market needs. Despite increasing enrolment in tertiary education, the growth of economically dynamic sectors remains insufficient to provide opportunities for educated youth.
UfM and the broader MENA region: In recent years, the conditions in several Southern Mediterranean countries resulted in increased migration pressure and continued high out-migration to destination countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region, especially from Egypt. The number of migrants from MENA countries in the GCC region has almost tripled, driven by sustained labour demand in the construction, healthcare, technology, and services sectors. However, recent trends indicate a partial shift from low-skilled migration towards higher-skilled immigration, reflecting evolving labour market needs in the GCC countries.
In an attempt to address these skills challenges in countries of origin and destination, the first EU Talent Partnerships focused on North African partners, notably Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia. These partnerships aim to address EU labour market needs, while also offering employment opportunities for third-country nationals and skills development in countries of origin.
Further to this, the UfM region has endured multiple political, social, and environmental challenges impacting human mobility in recent years. During the COVID-19 pandemic the region witnessed widespread reductions in cross-border mobility. More recently, regional conflicts have also affected human mobility. Regional geopolitical developments and the impact of climate change could further increase the number of people in the region seeking to migrate to improve their safety and economic security in the coming years.
Tourist flows and the visa policies that facilitate them further exemplify the interconnectedness of UfM countries. While migration involves long-term population movements driven by socio-economic and structural factors, tourism represents temporary mobility that makes a substantial contribution to regional economies.
The tourism sector accounts for a significant share of GDP across the region - particularly in non-EU UfM economies, where tourism often outpaces its relative importance in EU countries. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, tourism was a vital driver of economic recovery in UfM countries, with its contribution to GDP surpassing pre-pandemic levels in many regions. However, persistent challenges, including regional conflicts, have dampened economic impact of tourism in Lebanon, Jordan and Israel.
Concerning the impact of tourism on employment, between 2019 and 2023 employment in tourism-related jobs has shown a stable trend overall. Where available, data on female employment in tourism industries also indicate stability of full-time jobs. However, it is worth noting that in several countries, the stability observed can hide high shares of informal jobs in the tourism sector; these jobs, many of which were lost during the COVID-19, are possibly not captured by pre- and post-pandemic data.
Tourism visa policies within UfM sub-regions exhibit considerable variation, with the EU and Western Balkans generally benefiting from visa-free access, while the Southern Mediterranean continues to be under visa obligation for the EU. Recent policy developments, including the implementation of e-visas and visa-on-arrival provisions, signal efforts to facilitate regional travel. However, the introduction of new visa requirements, such as for Lebanese nationals travelling to Tunisia, highlights ongoing complexities. These mixed policies underscore the challenges in improving tourism visa policies across the region, with some progress in facilitating mobility, but also remaining hurdles.
Human mobility has the potential to drive regional integration and economic and social development at both individual and national levels in the UfM region. Divergent demographic trends present opportunities for enhanced collaboration between these regions, especially when it comes to labour allocation and skills development. However, challenges to cross-border mobility persist. In the realm of visa policies, disparities in visa requirements continue to hinder intra-regional mobility, particularly in the Southern Mediterranean. Meanwhile, large outflows of workers risk depriving the sending countries of critical human capital needed for innovation, productivity, and economic diversification. Furthermore, migrants often lack access to skills development opportunities, and skills recognition remains a barrier to labour market integration in destination countries.
To address these challenges and harness the economic and social development potentials of mobility, this chapter proposes several recommendations to strengthen migration management, facilitate visa processes for travel and business, and promote responsible tourism practices.
Monitor migration flows and the impact of emigration on skills and labour shortages. Monitoring emigration flows, especially the skills profiles of migrants, is crucial to identifying and addressing potential labour and skills shortages in countries of origin. Yet, most origin countries lack systems to systematically assess how emigration affects their domestic workforce.
Strengthen diaspora policy. UfM countries can further leverage diaspora investments by strengthening the diaspora policy framework, especially given the scale of remittances and diaspora communities in the region.
Prioritise mutually beneficial partnerships and agreements. UfM countries should prioritise solutions that meet the needs of origin and destination countries, as well as those of workers and employers. These solutions should include measures designed to integrate and include skilled migrants, and to improve skills matching.
Balance tourism growth with long-term sustainability. Promoting responsible tourism practices can optimise natural resource use and mitigate environmental impacts. This includes integrating renewable energy into tourism activities, such as transport, and diversifying tourism offerings to promote alternative tourism (e.g. ecotourism, cultural tourism, rural tourism, off-season tourism) to alleviate the pressures of seasonality and reduce environmental stress on coastal areas. The strong rebound of tourism after the pandemic has brought renewed challenges for some destination areas, where is causing concerns for its environmental and social impact. Key related challenges include strain on infrastructure, such as transport networks, health services, and resource management systems, as well as increased emissions contributing to climate change.
Promote sustainable and inclusive job creation in the tourism sector. To foster economic growth while protecting natural and cultural heritage, countries should prioritize the development of sustainable tourism initiatives that create decent jobs and benefit local communities. This can be achieved by promoting new tourism opportunities that emphasize local culture, biodiversity, and sustainability. Additionally, countries should consider implementing capacity-building programs and raise awareness of sustainable practices to equip business owners and employees with the skills needed for jobs in the tourism sector.
Facilitate regional mobility by easing visa requirements and digitalising application procedures. UfM governments should ease visa restrictions, particularly between the EU, Southern Mediterranean, and Western Balkan countries, by introducing targeted exemptions for low-risk travellers and simplifying procedures through electronic visas and travel authorisations. These efforts should be supported by improved digital infrastructure and transparent, multilingual platforms to enhance accessibility and promote regional tourism, cultural exchange, and economic integration.
Migration plays a significant role in shaping the economic, political and social dynamics of regional cooperation and integration. This indicator provides an overview of recent trends in migration flows to and within the UfM region. It disaggregates the flows by origin region to provide a picture of the number and characteristics of the main migration patterns and trends.
Annual intra-UfM migration flows to UfM-OECD destination countries (EU-27, Türkiye and Israel) have been on the rise since 2010, except for the pandemic year 2020. Migration to UfM-OECD countries increased from around 1.2 million in 2010 to 2.1 million in 2022. The decrease in migration during 2020 was followed by a rebound in 2021 to reach levels exceeding pre-pandemic levels in 2022 (Figure 4.1). The continued increase in intra-UfM migration flows over time is consistent with a general trend of increasing migration towards the OECD. In 2023, migration to OECD countries reached record levels for the second year in a row (OECD, 2024), placing migration management high on the political agenda in many UfM member countries. Both push and pull factors are driving the increase in recent migration flows.
In the light of increasing labour demand in UfM migrant destination countries in the EU, several recent agreements have been signed between UfM countries to facilitate the recruitment of labour migrants. An example is the recently ratified agreement between Greece and Egypt regarding employment of seasonal workers in the agriculture sector and a bilateral agreement between Italy and Tunisia regulating labour migration (see also section M.3). Germany has indefinitely extended the Western Balkans Regulations, which were originally set to expire in 2023; these regulations allow citizens of the six Western Balkan economies (Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo*, the Republic of Northern Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia) to obtain temporary work visas upon receiving a job offer from a German employer. Germany also increased the annual quota for these visas from 25 000 to 50 000.
Migration within UfM is also driven by structural and socio-economic challenges in origin countries, such as high unemployment, skills mismatches and intra-regional development and income differences. Recent evidence from opinion surveys in countries in MENA (Arab Barometer) and Western Balkan (Balkan Barometer) economies also points to continued interest in emigration. On average, around 35-40% of respondents stated that they consider emigrating in the future, with the highest interest among respondents in Tunisia (46%), Albania (44%), Jordan (42%) and Montenegro (42%).
A significant share of intra-UfM migration is intra-EU migration. In 2022, 1.39 million new intra-EU migrants were recorded, corresponding to 63% of total intra-UfM flows (Figure 4.2). Between 2021 and 2022, migration flows from all origin regions increased, with the largest relative increase in emigration from UfM-OECD countries outside the EU (up 20%), driven by an increase in flows from Türkiye followed by increased emigration flows from the Balkan region (up 12%) (Figure 4.2).
The top countries of migrant origin in 2022 include Romania, Morocco and Syria. Alongside Romania, Italy, Germany and Poland are the most important origin countries of intra-EU migration. Compared to 2021, the inflow of migrants from Türkiye and Morrocco was especially on the rise (Figure 4.3). While Moroccan migrants are mainly going to Spain, France, and Italy, migrants from Türkiye are largely moving to Germany. Between 2021 and 2022, migration flows from Türkiye to Germany doubled (OECD, 2024).
A look at the gender distribution show that female migrants constituted between 33% and 42% of intra-UfM migrant flows in 2022, depending on the region of origin (Figure 4.4). The share of female migrants was the lowest for OECD-UfM countries outside the EU (Israel and Türkiye), with 33% female migrants, followed by migrants from MENA with 39.5% female migrants. This can be compared to the share of female migrants in the overall migrant flows to all OECD countries, which stood at 42% in 2022 when excluding migration from Ukraine. A lower share of female migrants in recent migration flows from the MENA region is also consistent with a lower share of female migrants in the overall stock of migrants from the MENA region in UfM destination countries, as shown in section M2 (Figure 4.9).
Intra-regional migration flows are diverse in terms of reasons for migration. Figure 4.5 provides an overview of the reasons for which first residence permits (of at least 12 months) were issued to citizens of UfM Balkan and MENA countries in EU-27. Family migration accounts for the largest share of permits for citizens of both origin regions, accounting for 57% of all permits issued for migrants from the MENA region and 49% of permits for Western Balkan migrants in 2023. However, comparing changes in the composition of permits since 2019 reveal some important differences. While the importance of family migration has increased since 2019 for migrants of Western Balkan countries, the opposite is true for citizens of MENA countries where the share of family permits has decreased in favour of permits for employment and education reasons. This may partly be driven by recent policies to create more legal pathways for labour migration from North Africa to the EU, as discussed in section M3.
Continued high level of emigration from countries outside the EU, notably MENA and Western Balkan countries, have led to concerns about labour and skills shortages in migrant origin countries, especially when it comes to emigration of the highly skilled or workers in key sectors such as the medical sector (OECD, 2022[1]; Socha-Dietrich and Dumont, 2021[2]) or particular professions such as engineers and ITC specialists. Over time, the characteristics of migrants from the MENA and Western Balkan regions have undergone a significant shift with respect to the educational attainment of migrants, from being predominately low-skilled to being more evenly represented across education levels. This is part of a general trend of continuous increase in the level of education of migrants residing in the OECD. While this provides some opportunities for human capital and skills transfers (see Box 4.2), it also presents challenges to countries of origin. To address these challenges, it is important to carefully monitor patterns and characteristics of emigration flows and subsequent implications for local labour markets and economies. To date, few origin countries in the region have implemented systematic monitoring of emigration flows and in-depth data collection of characteristics of emigrants (OECD, 2022).
Monitor migration flows to predict labour and skills shortages. To prevent emigration from aggravating labour and skills shortages in migrant origin countries, it is important to monitor the patterns and characteristics of emigration flows, especially when it comes to the skills composition of migrants. This will allow timely identification of potential labour and skills shortages and adapt education and skills policies and strategies. To date, few countries of origin have systems in place to systematically monitor the implication of emigration on local labour and skills supply.
Strengthen data collection related to characteristics of emigrants. Better data regarding the education and skills characteristics of emigrants is key to aligning labour migration and skills anticipation policies and help strengthen skills circulation and accumulation stemming from migration.
This indicator measures permanent migration flows to and from UfM countries. The information is based on the OECD International Migration Database (IMD), which captures annual legal migration flows to OECD countries.
It should be noted that although irregular migration flows exist, such flows are challenging to measure as no reliable and comparable data are available on irregular entries of foreign nationals. Therefore, the data on actual migration flows to UfM-OECD countries might be underestimated.
Also, the data in the IMD have not been harmonised at the international level and should therefore be interpreted with some caution.
OECD data on migration flows and migrant population can be retrieved from the OECD Databases on Migration.
Data on first residence permits by reason and citizenship are based on Eurostat data.
OECD (2024) International Migration Outlook, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/fr/publications/2022/03/les-emigres-marocains-dans-les-pays-de-l-ocde_b2d049e5.html
OECD (2022), Labour Migration in the Western Balkans: Mapping Patterns, Addressing Challenges and Reaping Benefits Mapping Patterns, Addressing Challenges and Reaping Benefits, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/af3db4f9-en.
Regional Cooperation Council (2023), Balkan Barometer, https://www.rcc.int/balkanbarometer/publications
Arab Barometer (2024), Migration in the Middle East and North Africa, https://www.arabbarometer.org/wp-content/uploads/AB8-Migration-Report-EN.pdf
Socha-Dietrich, K. and J. Dumont (2021), “International migration and movement of doctors to and within OECD countries - 2000 to 2018: Developments in countries of destination and impact on countries of origin”, OECD Health Working Papers, No. 126, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/7ca8643e-en
Migration flows of UfM nationals to UfM-OECD countries (in thousands)
Note: Migration flows include migration from UfM countries to UfM-OECD countries (EU-27, Israel, and Türkiye).
Source: OECD International Migration Database.
Migrants from UfM countries to UfM members of the OECD (in thousands)
Source: OECD International Migration Database.
Note: Migration flows include migration from UfM countries to UfM-OECD countries (EU-27, Israel, and Türkiye). Migration flow series to Germany and Poland are adjusted to exclude short-term immigrants.
Source: OECD International Migration Database.
Note: Migration flows include migration from UfM countries to all OECD countries. “Other” include Türkiye and Israel. “World excl. UKR” include the migration inflow to OECD countries from all origin countries except Ukraine.
Source: OECD International Migration Database.
Regional geopolitical developments and political and social instability continue to constitute important drivers of forced migration in the UfM region, significantly increasing the number of persons migrating to other UfM countries and potentially redirecting labour migration flows. For instance, the displacement of Ukrainians in neighbouring EU countries could shift migration and work opportunities for workers from the Southern Mediterranean due to increased job competition, changes in labour market needs, and shifts in immigration policies. More recently, the ongoing conflict in the Middle East and political instability across the Sahel and Sub-Saharan Africa have contributed to increased forced migrations and could affect mobility across the region.
In 2023, more than 274,800 migrants reached Europe across the Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean irregularly, many traveling largely by sea from Libya and Tunisia to Italy and from Türkiye to Greece. Preliminary data for 2023 suggests a 35% increase in irregular arrivals from the previous year and indicate the highest levels since 2016 (ICMPD, 2024[3]).
Climate change is also reshaping migration patterns across the region. The increase in severe weather events and climate disasters caused 305,000 new displacements in the Middle East and Africa in 2022, a 30% increase compared to the previous year (IDMC, 2023[4]). Floods, storms, and droughts threaten water and food security as well as human health and security. Most recently, earthquakes in Türkiye, Syria, and Morocco in 2023 as well as floods in Valencia, Spain in November 2024 led to internal displacements, with the largest impacts being borne by the most vulnerable populations within these countries. If faced with continued challenges for meeting basic needs or rebuilding, families and individuals may look to migrate.
Amid these evolving patterns of forced displacement, growing attention is being given to refugee entrepreneurship as a means of fostering socio-economic inclusion, with displaced individuals increasingly contributing to local economies by building businesses, bridging markets, and generating employment opportunities despite persistent legal, financial, and social barriers (Union for the Mediterranean, “Seminar on refugee entrepreneurship”, 2024).
Labour migration frameworks are adapting to address the needs of refugees. For instance, the EU Talent Pool pilot focused specifically on the integration of Ukrainian refugees into labour markets in the EU (OECD, 2024[5]; EURES, n.d.[6]).
Migration can help balance demographic and socio-economic imbalances and contribute to growth and development in both countries of origin and destination. From a country-of-destination perspective, immigration can help countries with aging populations meet labour and skills shortages. From a country-of-origin perspective, emigration can alleviate pressure on the labour market and drive development through remittances and diaspora investments. This indicator monitors the evolution of the stock and characteristics of UfM-born migrants.
The stock of intra-UfM migrants has been on the rise in the last two decades and the UfM region is hosting close to 34 million intra-UfM migrants, up from 19 million in 1990 (Figure 4.5). Most of these migrants originate from EU countries, but the stocks of intra-UfM migrants from MENA and the Western Balkans have been growing. The largest relative increase in migrant stocks originates from the countries in the Western Balkans.: the region saw a 157% increase (from 1.1 million to close to 2.8 million migrants) over the period 1990-2024, while migration from the MENA region increased by 112% (from 4.8 to 10.4 million).
Migration from EU countries represented in 2024 more than half of the UfM migrant stock (54%), down from 59% in 1990. The share of migrants from the MENA and Western Balkan countries increased in the same period. Migration from the MENA region now constitutes 30% of the UfM migrant stock, up from 27% in 1990, while the share of migrants from the Western Balkans has increased from 6% to 8%.
The main UfM regions of emigration outside the EU (MENA and Western Balkans) are faced with sustained high emigration rates, mainly towards a number of EU countries (notably France, Italy, Spain and Germany), driven by economic and social challenges such as weak job creation and high employment rates, especially among youth. Among the countries in the Western Balkans, migrant stocks are primarily originating from Bosnia and Herzegovina and in more recent years from Albania (Figure 4.6).
The stock of emigrants from the MENA region has witnessed rapid growth since 1990, with Morocco and the Palestinian Authority being the main sending countries in the region (Figure 4.7).
Emigration rates differ significantly across different UfM migrant sending regions. The Western Balkans face demographic changes that encompass both an ageing population and a trend of declining birth rates across the entire region (none of the economies has a fertility rate above that needed for generational replacement) (Wankiewicz, 2025, “The vanishing Balkans: The region’s demographic crisis”). The demographic changes, coupled with large waves of emigration in recent decades, resulted in a significant share of the population residing abroad. In 2024, around one-fourth of the population in the UfM Western Balkan countries had emigrated- a significant increase from 1990, when the emigration rate stood at around 10%.
Meanwhile, the MENA region is experiencing rapid population growth with more stable emigration rates over time, at around 4% (Figure 4.8).
The role of intra-regional migration in relation to other migration destinations varies across countries.
Migrants originating from Albania, Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia rely heavily on intra-UfM migration, with more than 90% of the migrants residing in another UfM country (Figure 4.9).
A majority of migrants from the Palestinian Authority, North Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina also reside in other UfM countries.
However, a few UfM origin countries rely more on migration to destination countries outside the UfM region, notably the United States and Canada but also Australia.
UfM and the broader MENA region: In the past two decades, migrants from MENA countries have also increasingly emigrated to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region (Figure 4.10 and Figure 4.11). The GCC countries continue to be major destinations for workers from MENA countries, mainly Egypt and Lebanon, driven by labour demand in the construction, healthcare, technology, and service sectors. The number of migrants from MENA UfM countries in the GCC region almost tripled between 2000 and 2024, from 1.4 million to 3.9 million - driven mainly by migration from Egypt, which has seen a sharp increase in the migration stock in GCC countries since 1990, from 1.2 to 3.2 million in 2024. It is interesting to note that between 1990 and 2024, the relative increase in migration stocks from Egypt to GCC countries is comparable to the relative increase in intra-UfM migration, although the absolute migrant stock of Egyptians in UfM destination countries is lower, which indicates that the two migration corridors are complementary rather than substitutes. While previous migration flows to the GCC states were dominated by low-skilled labour, there has been a noticeable increase in high-skilled immigration, particularly in fields like engineering, IT, finance, and education. This shift reflects efforts by the GCC countries to diversify their economies under initiatives like Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030 and the UAE’s long-term development goals. For example, recent data indicates that middle- and high-skilled migration to Saudi Arabia has been growing faster than low-skilled migration since the COVID-19 pandemic (De Bel-Air, 2024[7]). The migration from the UfM MENA countries towards the GCC countries is heavily male dominated, with only around 30% of female migrants. This is in line with the overall pattern of migration to the GCC countries, which is also characterised by a high share of male migrants.
The gender dimension of UfM intra-regional migration is diverse and varies according to the origin region. While female migrants constitute around half or more of the migrant stocks from the Western Balkans, among the UfM MENA countries male migrants are over-represented in migrant stocks from all countries but Algeria. Similarly to the migration stocks in GCC countries, only about 30% of the migrants from Egypt are women (Figure 4.12).
Recent evidence further shows that migrants from UfM origin countries available in OECD data often face barriers in terms of labour market integration. Migrants from North Africa and the Western Balkans in OECD countries have on average lower labour market participation rates and are more likely to be over-qualified compared to the overall foreign-born population (OECD, 2022[8]; OECD, 2022[1]; OECD, 2018[9]).
While the emigration of working age individuals may have negative implications for the labour market and economy of origin countries, as discussed in section M1, migration can also positively contribute to the economies of origin countries through financial and knowledge transfers from migrants and the diaspora (Box 4.2).
Invest in diaspora strategies and policies. Against the backdrop of significant remittance flows and large diaspora populations, there is considerable potential for UfM countries to strengthen regional integration and enhance the positive impacts of migration by continuing to develop diaspora policies and programmes. Evidence regarding the effectiveness of existing programs remains limited, highlighting the need for more systematic monitoring and evaluation of diaspora investment efforts.
Facilitate and leverage the return and reintegration of regular migrants. UfM countries can facilitate regular emigrants’ return and reintegration into the labour market by providing incentives for return and facilitating investments and entrepreneurial activities among return migrants.
This section is based on United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) migration statics. The UN DESA database includes estimates of international migrant stocks by age, gender and country of origin and destination worldwide, over the years 1990-2024. The estimates are based on official statistics on the foreign-born or foreign citizens.
Emigration rates are defined as the ratio between the number of emigrants from a specific country living abroad and the total sum of the resident population of this country and emigrants living abroad.
OECD (2018), Talents à l'étranger : Une revue des émigrés tunisiens, Talents à l’étranger, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264308855-fr.
OECD (2022), Labour Migration in the Western Balkans: Mapping Patterns, Addressing Challenges and Reaping Benefits Mapping Patterns, Addressing Challenges and Reaping Benefits, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/af3db4f9-en.
OECD (2022), Les émigrés marocains dans les pays de l’OCDE : Quelles nouvelles dynamiques?, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264264304-fr.
Note: The graph includes the stock of migrants from a UfM country residing in another UfM country (excluding observer and suspended countries).
Source: UN DESA 2024 International Migrant Stock database.
Note: UfM destination countries include all UfM countries (excluding observer and suspended countries).
Source: UN DESA 2024 International Migrant Stock database.
Note: UfM destination countries include all UfM countries (excluding observer and suspended countries). The category “other” include Lebanon, Jordan and Mauritania.
Source: UN DESA 2024 International Migrant Stock database.
Number of migrants as share of total population residing in origin country and abroad
Note: Emigration rate is defined as the number of migrants (in any destination country) divided by the sum of the migrant population and the population residing in the economy of origin.
Source: UN DESA 2024 International Migrant Stock database.
Share of migrants in UfM countries in relation to migrants in all destination countries
Source: UN DESA 2024 International Migrant Stock database.
Number of migrants and number of female migrants originating from UfM MENA countries in the GCC region
Note: The Gulf Cooperation Council region includes the following six countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
Source: UN DESA 2024 International Migrant Stock database.
Number of migrants from UfM MENA countries to the GCC region, by country of origin (left panel) and country of destination (right panel)
Note: The Gulf Cooperation Council region comprises six countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
Source: UN DESA 2020 International Migrant Stock database.
Share of female migrants in relation to all migrant (all destination countries)
Source: UN DESA 2024 International Migrant Stock database.
Migration has the potential to be an important force in addressing demographic imbalances and labour shortages in countries of destination as well as contributing to social and economic development in countries of origin. Migrants can help fill labour shortages in destination countries with aging populations and support development in their origin countries through remittances, diaspora investments, and knowledge and skills transfer.
The first and most direct development impact of migration on countries of origin is remittances. As shown in Chapter 2, UfM countries in MENA and Western Balkans are receiving large inflows of remittances, which can contribute to development at household, regional and national levels.
Besides remittances, a highly skilled diaspora can contribute to knowledge and technology diffusion and increased financial investments and trade by reducing transaction costs and information asymmetries. Initiatives to harness the development impacts of the diaspora are already underway in UfM countries in the Western Balkan and MENA sub-regions, but are at various stages of implementation (OECD, 2022[1]; ICMPD, 2024[10]). A foundation for a successful diaspora policy is building trust and communication channels with the diaspora. Many origin countries have established mechanisms to connect with the diaspora, such as platforms, registries and interactive portals that identify the diaspora population. Providing different networking services through these platforms has proven particularly important, to help build relationships with the diaspora and allow the diaspora to connect with each other and with the private and public sector in the origin countries.
To further enhance knowledge exchange and transfers, some countries have established specific scientific research networks and platforms to draw from the knowledge and expertise of diaspora members in academia. An example from the Western Balkans is the Serbian Science and Diaspora Collaboration Programme. The programme was established in 2019 with the aim of providing financial incentives for local research-and-development institutes to collaborate with the Serbian diaspora, participate in knowledge exchange, and build their human resource capacity through short-term visits of researchers from Serbia to diaspora experts. Egypt has established a Science Hub to promote exchange of skills and knowledge and is also planning to set up a digital platform to enable diaspora academics to support the implementation of national strategies for higher education and scientific research.
Other policies and programmes focus on strengthening the financial contributions and investments of the diaspora by providing financial instruments such as tailored loans and diaspora bonds and supporting diaspora investment and entrepreneurship activities. Egypt and Jordan have issued diaspora bonds in the past to mobilise funds to complement public resources and other blended finance instruments to support public investment projects. In the Western Balkans, there are several initiatives involving the mapping of diaspora businesses and the organisation of business forums targeting diaspora representatives to encourage more diaspora investments.
Finally, return migration can also help offset some of the negative impacts of emigration on origin countries while contributing to the transfer of productive skills and knowledge. Examples of policy to assist in the return and reintegration process include simplifying and removing regulatory and administrative barriers that inhibit return migration and helping return migrants to smoothly reintegrate into the labour market or pursue entrepreneurial activities.
Despite some examples of progress and innovation in the development of diaspora and return migration initiatives, gaps persist in the diaspora policy frameworks, notably with regard to the institutionalisation of diaspora engagement. While several UfM countries in the MENA and Western Balkan sub-regions have taken steps to create specific institutional bodies to coordinate the work on diaspora engagement, there is generally a lack of holistic government strategies, and the monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes is often weak. Furthermore, data gaps related to diaspora and return migration persist, particularly in capturing return migration patterns and characteristics.
Sources: (OECD, 2022[1]; ICMPD, 2024[10])
A combination of regional and bilateral agreements, frameworks, and projects plays a key role in framing and fostering patterns of human mobility across the Mediterranean. Mobility agreements, signed between two or more countries (or the EU), aim to regulate and manage migration between the signatory countries; mobility frameworks, such as skills mobility partnerships (SMPs), provide strategic blueprints for achieving the objectives outlined in mobility agreements; and many new programmes and projects serve as the practical implementation of these frameworks, translating goals of formal agreements into tangible outcomes that support regional integration and development.
This indicator seeks to provide insights into how mobility agreements, frameworks, and projects interact, and how they balance the often-complex dynamics of regional security with the promotion of shared interests.
Over the past two decades, EU, Western Balkan and Southern Mediterranean countries have increasingly sought to collaborate on mobility partnerships and agreements, with a strong focus on migration management and improving legal opportunities for labour and education mobility. Table 4.1 outlines agreements signed between the EU or EU member countries and other non-EU UfM countries with respect to migration and labour mobility. Although mobility partnerships and readmission agreements signed over the last 15-20 years continue to play an important role in EU relations with the Southern Mediterranean and Western Balkan countries, these agreements have more recently been complemented by new EU frameworks and funding schemes aiming to enhance mutually beneficial partnership between EU and non-EU partner countries.
Within the Western Balkan and Southern Mediterranean sub-regions, countries have fewer subregional agreements on migration management but maintain agreements and memorandums of understanding (MoUs) focusing on mobility for labour and educational exchange opportunities. For instance:
In 2021, Albania and North Macedonia signed agreements on the free movement of trade, people, and services to advance regional cooperation and economic development.
In March 2024, Albania, North Macedonia and Serbia fully opened their labour markets to one another as part of the Open Balkan initiative (OECD, Western Balkans Competitiveness Outlook 2024: Regional Profile).
Analysis of the Western Balkans highlighted that limited labour mobility may be partly linked to uneven and insufficient measures to include and integrate skilled migrants (OECD Western Balkans Competitiveness Outlook 2024: Regional Profile).
Within the Southern Mediterranean sub-region, mobility of people has been the focus of several regional and bilateral travel agreements. For instance, Egypt and Jordan, along with other Southern Mediterranean countries (Table 4.2), have visa waiver agreements for their citizens, allowing for visa-free travel between their respective countries; and in May 2024, Tunisia and Algeria signed a twinning agreement on cooperation in the tourism sector (The Maghreb Times, n.d.[11]).
Outside of travel, the Southern Mediterranean countries cooperate bilaterally on mobility for education and labour.
In 2021, Morocco and Mauritania signed an MoU based on the exchange of professional skills, experiences, programmes, and studies in employment-related fields.
In 2023, Egypt and Jordan agreed on an executive programme for technical cooperation in vocational training for 2023-2024.
Jordan and Algeria have signed both an economic and a cultural agreement aiming to improve cooperation in areas including labour and employment as well as education.
However, while the Southern Mediterranean shows significant bilateral cooperation on mobility, there is a lack of comprehensive, sub-region-wide collaboration on the movement of people to address patterns of human mobility at the regional level.
In response to persistent labour shortages and a shrinking labour force, the European Commission has sought to enhance mobility in the Mediterranean region, aligning new frameworks and initiatives with existing agreements.
In 2020, the EU New Pact on Migration and Asylum sought to reimagine mobility in the region, with a focus on creating new legal pathways for labour migration, skills matching, and labour shortages.
Since the early 2000s, the EU has been promoting circular migration as a tool to address both labour market needs in destination countries and several sensitive issues linked to permanent settlement of migrants. The design of circular migration programmes has been driven by a “triple win” objective for origin and destination countries as well as migrants themselves. The implementation of the programmes, however, has resulted also in cases detrimental to migrants’ rights and working conditions, especially for low-skilled, seasonal workers in sectors such as agriculture or construction. Approaching circular migration schemes through the prism of SMPs could contribute to enhancing cooperation on skills development in a way that reconciles origin-country demand and destination-country demand to incentivise return and make mutually beneficial circularity a reality. Projects like the one implemented by Belgium and Tunisia (Box 4.3) reflect this approach.
Starting in 2021, the EU began to recast directives for the EU blue card, as well as short- and long-term residence permits. These initiatives aim to streamline visa application processes and improve working conditions for low, middle, and highly skilled workers. For low and medium-skilled workers in particular, the revised Single Permit Directive, Directive 2024/1233, streamlines the application procedure and single permit for the right to work and reside in the EU. The single permit is designed to give a broad range of non-EU nationals, including those in low and medium-skill level jobs, equal treatment in working conditions, social security, recognition of qualifications, and tax benefits (EU Commission, 2024). Notably, seasonal workers and holders of long-term residence permits are not included under this directive but are instead covered under the Long-term Residents Directive (2003/109/EC) and the Seasonal Workers Directive (2014/36/EU).
Typically, SMPs include five components - formalised state cooperation, multi-stakeholder involvement, training, skills recognition, and migration/mobility - and can be implemented through bilateral or multilateral agreements, programmes, and pilot projects (OECD, 2023). SMPs may also incorporate vocational training in the country of origin or destination, internships in the destination countries, or scholarships. Key target sectors include healthcare, ICT, and agriculture.
As part of the EU Pact on Migration and Asylum, the Skills and Talent Package and the Skills and Talent Mobility Package, the EU has launched Talent Partnerships and adopted a proposal to set up a Talent Pool, giving a new impetus to bilateral mobility partnerships.
The Talent Partnerships aim to provide a comprehensive policy framework, as well as funding support, to address skills shortages in Europe while fostering mutually beneficial partnerships between EU countries and partner countries.
To date, EU Talent Partnerships have been launched with three MENA countries (Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia) as well as Pakistan and Bangladesh (Table 4.3). These partnerships reinforce cooperation between EU Member States and partner countries to help address the EU’s labour market needs, while also providing employment and skills training opportunities for third-country nationals.
Among EU Member States, focusing on two specific examples:
Italy is one of the key participants in Talent Partnerships and is also engaging in bilateral discussions and agreements with Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia. In Egypt, the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Egyptian government aim to create an Italian Egyptian Employment Centre, intended for the vocational training of workers in the tourism and hotel sectors in both Egypt and Italy. Also, through the THAMM programme (see below) Italy has mobilities with Tunisia and Morocco, notably aimed at training 2,000 Tunisian construction workers and 500 Moroccan workers, respectively, in the mechatronics sector.
Germany is also present in Egypt, where an Egyptian-German Centre for Jobs, Migration, and Reintegration was established in 2020. This aims to empower Egyptian youth through their migration or reintegration journeys, with support from the EU as a key partner in fostering sustainable development and inclusive opportunities. It provides a 360-degree approach to migration, and it serves as an advisory centre, supporting pathways of labour mobility, tackling sustainable reintegration, and offering viable socio-economic alternatives to irregular migration.
Once adopted, the Talent Pool will be the first EU-wide platform aiming at facilitating international recruitment and providing job opportunities for jobseekers from third countries residing outside the EU and possessing the skills required to work in EU-wide shortage occupations at all skills levels.
Migration and mobility play an important role in the Strategic and Comprehensive Partnerships agreed between the European Union and Tunisia in 2023 and Egypt in 2024. These mutually beneficial partnerships address the needs of both parties. In the MOU between the EU and Tunisia, “both Parties agree to promote legal pathways for migration, including seasonal employment opportunities, to stimulate international mobility at all skills levels and to strengthen cooperation on skills development in a mutually beneficial manner”. In the EU-Egypt joint declaration, it is foreseen that mobility schemes such as the Talent Partnerships will be developed to assist with matching skills and labour market needs, including through labour mobility seasonal worker schemes.
The EU-funded “Towards a Holistic Approach to Labour Migration Governance and Mobility in North Africa” (THAMM) programme aims to foster regular migration and mobility from North African countries. It aims at improving the governance for labour migration and the protection of migrant workers in North Africa by supporting the development and implementation of coherent and comprehensive policy frameworks, guided by relevant human rights and labour standards and based on reliable data and evidence. In addition, it contributes to preparing, putting in place or improving regular migration and mobility schemes in cooperation with selected North African countries, namely Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia, and EU Member States, in particular Germany, Italy, Belgium and France. The initial phase of the programme, starting in 2019, was funded under the EU Trust Fund for Africa. Under the Neighbourhood, Development and International Cooperation Instrument (NDICI)-Global Europe, since 2021 an additional EUR 23 million has been allocated to this programme, thereby solidifying the EU’s commitment to fostering legal migration, enhancing mobility, and aligning labour market needs between North African countries and Europe.
Several initiatives have addressed mobility of young people, strengthening the link between migration and development objectives. Box 4.3 provides examples of current and past projects between EU and non-EU UfM countries. The projects adopt a whole-of-government approach and incorporate activities such as pre-departure orientations, language learning, technical/job-specific training, soft skills workshops, and job search support for participants upon their return. These activities not only address specific labour market gaps but are also designed to promote the integration and employability of third-country nationals (TCNs), contribute to the development of countries of origin, and mitigate potential brain drain.
At the fifth UfM Ministerial on Employment and Labour in 2022, the EU launched the Regional Team Europe Initiative (TEI) on “Jobs through Trade and Investment in the Southern Neighbourhood” with the aim to address the challenges of decent employment across the region, especially for young people and women. This initiative supports a holistic approach to job creation in the Southern Neighbourhood, by bringing together initiatives that link trade, investment, and entrepreneurship policies and outcomes with job creation. It contributes to the implementation of the EU’s 2021 Agenda for the Mediterranean and its economic and investment plan, and also to the shared priorities under the UfM Ministerial Declaration on Employment and Labour of 2022, by addressing key issues including:
High levels of unemployment, especially for women and young people.
Skills mismatch between labour market demands and the qualification of graduates entering the job market.
Job concentration in few sectors and geographic regions, with a lack of jobs supporting the green and digital transitions.
The EU, participating EU Member States, their respective development agencies, as well as the European Investment Bank (EIB) and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) will mobilise around EUR 2.8 billion to promote innovative approaches to employment creation in the Southern Mediterranean by boosting sustainable investments and trade, vocational training and skills programmes, and inclusive entrepreneurship.
As part of the TEI, the “UfM Hub for Jobs, Trade, and Investment” provides technical assistance and small grants aiming at promoting job creation, trade and sustainable investment in the region. Together, the TEI and the UfM Hub contribute to job creation in the Southern Neighbourhood, help address the root causes of migration by supporting economic development and social stability in participating countries, and indirectly contribute to labour mobility.
Prioritise mutually beneficial partnerships and agreements. Migration agreements should prioritise solutions that meet the diverse needs of both origin and destination countries and workers and employers. Measures to include and integrate skilled migrants should also be promoted. To achieve this goal, countries should seek to involve a range of stakeholders in the policy-making process; the involvement of the private sector can help increase the scale of investments and improve skills matching.
Adapt programmes to the twin transition. Partnerships should strive to up-skill workers for employment in sectors that support digitalisation and the green transition.
Invest in technical and vocational education and training (TVET) programmes. By investing in existing TVET infrastructure in origin countries, EU partners can improve the efficiency of talent partnerships and fulfil labour needs while improving education offerings in origin countries. Skills development and training programmes should be developed to benefit both domestic and regional labour markets.
Strengthen monitoring and communication on labour market conditions. Improving the monitoring and sharing of labour market needs between UfM countries can help address information deficits for jobseekers and employers and increase job search efficiency. Additionally, improving information channels can help identify where investments in skills training would be beneficial.
Facilitate reintegration of upskilled workers by facilitating multi-stakeholder engagement and designing strategies to promote the successful reintegration of workers in their country of origin. Specific policy options could include entrepreneurial training, advisory services, and provision or facilitation of access to finance to start a business.
A mobility partnership is a cooperative framework aimed at enhancing legal migration, facilitating the movement of people, and incentivising cooperation in sectors such as labour, education, and development.
A readmission agreement between the European Union and a non-EU country is a formal treaty with the goal of facilitating the return and readmission of people who are irregularly staying in an EU country to their country of origin or transit. These agreements are part of the EU’s strategy for managing migration and combatting irregular migration.
OECD/EMN (2022), Skills Mobility Partnerships: exploring innovative approaches to labour migration, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/topics/policy-issues/migration/2022-March-Joint-EMN-OECD-Inform-Skills-Mobility-Partnerships.pdf
OECD (2018) What would make Global Skills Partnerships work in practice?, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/what-would-make-global-skills-partnerships-work-in-practice_f5d75496-en.html
OECD (2022) Feasibility Study on the Development of an EU Talent Pool), OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/34c77584-en
ICMPD (2024), Cultivating talent: Exploring effective talent attraction and retention practices in and beyond the EU, International Centre for Migration Policy Development, https://www.icmpd.org/file/download/61189/file/Study%2520on%2520Talent%2520Attraction%2520and%2520Retention.pdf.
Di Salvo, M. (2022), Talent Partnerships and Future Skills Needs, EuroMeSCo Policy Report No 47, Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS) and European Institute of the Mediterranean (IEMed), Brussels and Barcelona, https://www.ceps.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/EuroMesCo-Policy_Report_Talent-Partnerships.pdf. :contentReference
Note: The list is non-exhaustive.
Note: Several EU countries maintain bilateral agreements with Southern and Eastern Mediterranean countries (regarding pensions, healthcare, and social security contributions) as well as double taxation agreements (DTAs). These agreements are tailored to destination and origin country considerations and needs. For instance, Germany has agreements with Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina on pension coordination, healthcare benefits, and avoidance of double social security contributions for temporarily posted workers.
Several initiatives have sought to address the mobility of young third-country nationals (TCNs) to work or gain professional experience in a host organisation in an EU country.
Y-Med. Implemented in Italy since 2017 by International Organization for Migration (IOM) missions in Italy, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia, Y-Med is designed to facilitate internship opportunities for students of North African countries and support their integration into the labour markets of their countries of origin. Y-Med also inlvolved soft-skills training focused on areas such as time management, interpersonal communication, workplace culture, and teamwork, The first edition facilitated internships for Moroccans in Italian companies in Morocco, and the following editions gave students and graduates from North African countries the opportunity to complete internships in Italy. Upon completion of the internship and return to their countries of origin, the project supports interns with job placement training and assistance to enhance employment chances. As of 2023, Y-Med had involved a total of 78 interns from four countries and 44 Italian companies based in Morocco and in Italy (Veneto and Lazio).
Mediterranean Network for Training Orientation to Regular Migration (MENTOR). The MENTOR project, co-funded via the EU Migration Partnership Facility, provides opportunities for young graduates from Morocco and Tunisia to complete internships in Italy. The first phase, from 2017 to 2018, facilitated three-month internships for 19 young graduates in the cities of Milan and Turin. Interns were chosen based on merit, specifically their skills profiles and professional and entrepreneurial projects. Following return to their countries of origin, interns were provided with mentoring and coaching support to implement their professional or entrepreneurial projects, aiding their integration into local labour markets. In 2021, a second phase of the project aimed to provide 50 young Moroccan and Tunisian nationals with six-month internships in Milan, Monza-Brianza, and Turin.
Vocation apprenticeships and professional internships. A Belgian-Tunisian skills mobility partnership, this project was implemented over a 22-month period in 2018-2019 by IOM Tunisia and Belgium, with support from the respective country governments and various public and private partners. The initiative provided 31 Tunisian students and university graduates with the opportunity to carry out six-month internships in Belgium and benefit from job-seeking support upon their return to Tunisia. The majority of participants found employment in Tunisia or Belgium upon completion of the project. A Belgian company established a sister company in Tunisia providing employment opportunities to Tunisian nationals.
Pilot Project Addressing Labour Shortage through Innovative Labour Migration Models (PALIM). Co-funded via the EU Migration Partnership Facility, the PALIM project was implemented by the Belgian Development Agency (Enabel) in cooperation with public and private actors in Morocco and Belgium from March 2019 to April 2021 for 26 months. The project provided training in ICT, soft skills development, and predeparture sessions on work and life in Belgium to 120 young Moroccan graduates, with the goal of placing participants in Flemish and Moroccan labour markets to address needs in both countries.
Due to mobility disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the international mobility part of project could not be implemented. Instead, two matching platforms for Belgian and Moroccan employers were developed to facilitate job placement of trained talent in ICT companies in Belgium and Morocco.
High Opportunity for Mediterranean Executive Recruitment (HOMERe). The HOMERe project, also co-funded via the EU Migration Partnership Facility, was implemented in two phases: the first phase running from 2015 to 2017 and a second phase running from 2019-2020. This project has facilitated six-month internships for student and recent graduates from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Lebanon, Cote d’Ivoire, and Türkiye at French companies operating in the two North African countries. Providing more than 500 short-term mobility internships (to date) with companies involved in transnational activities in the Med region, the project sought to develop technical competences that would facilitate the integration of participants into their country’s labour market by improving the employability of interns. Half of participants found first employment opportunities after the project, either in the enterprise where they interned or in another.
Towards a Holistic Approach to Labour Migration Governance and Mobility in North Africa (THAMM) . THAMM is an EU co-funded regional programme that supports partner institutions in North Africa in formulating and implementing migration policy and fostering regional cooperation. As part of its mission, THAMM has developed three pilot mobility schemes, implemented by the German Corporation for International Cooperation (GIZ), Enabel, and the French Office for Immigration and Integration (OFII):
In 2019, THAMM-GIZ introduced migration pathways for young Egyptians, Moroccans, and Tunisians to work and access vocational training in Europe.
In 2020, THAMM-Enabel was implemented as a continuation of the PALIM project, training mid to highly skilled talents from Morocco and Tunisia to work in demand sectors in countries of origin or Belgium.
In 2022, THAMM-OFII began with the aim of increasing circular migration between Tunisia and France, using the Tunisian National Agency for Employment and Self-Employment (ANETI) to match job seekers.
In 2024, a new phase of THAMM+ was initiated, aiming to strengthen the employability of potential migrant workers and improve regular and sustainable labour mobility pathways, leading to decent work opportunities between Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia and EU member states. It is implemented by the International Labour Organization (ILO), GIZ, IOM, and the Italian Agency for Development Cooperation.
Mediterranean New Chance (MedNC). Started by the UfM and coordinated by the European Institute for Cooperation and Development (IECD), this project aims to enhance cooperation between institutions and organisations working towards the socio-professional integration of youth across the UfM region. Through its network of public, private, and civil society actors, the project implements capacity-building activities and promotes the exchange of best practices and innovative educational and training methods to improve youth employability, in particular for women and NEETs (those who are not in education, employment or training). As of 2023, MedNC has provided support to over 55,000 young people, connecting 340 schools and centres across 10 Mediterranean countries (Algeria, Egypt, France, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Portugal, Spain and Tunisia).
Sources and further reading: https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/topics/policy-issues/migration/2022-March-Joint-EMN-OECD-Inform-Skills-Mobility-Partnerships.pdf; https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/engaging-with-employers-in-skills-mobility-partnerships_9e6da0ff-en.html; Making Migration Work: An Analysis of Skills-based Mobility Schemes for Mediterranean Youth | IOM Publications Platform; EURES-Coms toolkir 2021-2024 (europa.eu) ; The Y-Med Project | IOM Egypt; Mediterranean New Chance (MedNC) - UfM
In 2023, 35% of Tunisian firms considered that the workforce was inadequately trained (World Bank Enterprise Survey). Employers also expressed concerns about the lack of job candidates with strong social skills, work ethic, and problem-solving abilities. Recognising the existence of a skills mismatch in the labour market, in recent years the Tunisian government has emphasised the need for coherent policies on skills training to address the country’s high unemployment, particularly among youth. Initiatives like the Talent Partnership, supported in the implementation by the THAMM programme and a new national employment strategy, have been developed to address the skills mismatch and support the development of competencies that benefit both local and global markets.
Sources: Discussions at the thematic meeting of the OECD Working Party on Migration “Future-Proofing Labour Markets: The role of skills mobility and partnerships”, 19 June 2024; World Bank, Beyond Diplomas - Decoding the Skills Mismatch Perceived by Tunisian Employers (worldbank.org)
Tourism remains an important driver of economic growth. It plays a key role in stimulating economic activity, creating jobs, generating income and foreign exchange, promoting regional development, and supporting local communities. Understanding the tourism sector’s contribution to GDP and employment in the UfM can enable policymakers and stakeholders to develop more targeted and sustainable tourism policies and management strategies (Box 4.5).
In all the UfM economies, tourism represents a significant share of total GDP, with a minimum of 5% in North Macedonia and Algeria and peaks in Montenegro and Albania, where it contributes approximately 25% to GDP (Figure 4.13).
Data for 2023 show that the contribution to GDP is higher than pre-pandemic levels across almost all the UfM countries.
In several non-EU UfM economies, tourism contributes more to GDP than the EU average. This highlights the high importance of the tourism sector for the overall economic performance in these countries.
However, the ongoing conflict in the Middle East has impacted tourism flows in the countries of the MENA region – as evidenced by a significant decline in Lebanon, where tourism's contribution to GDP has dropped substantially, and in Israel, where data indicate a decrease compared to previous years.
UfM and the broader MENA region: The contribution of tourism to GDP in the GCC countries is in line with the EU level at around 10%, showing a stable trend during the reference period. In terms of contribution of tourism to employment, data show a stable trend among the UfM countries with limited variation across years. In several countries, this stability is likely to be related to informal workers in the tourism sector, who are not visible in statistics when employed and whose job losses are therefore not accounted for. Data from 2023 show comparable values to pre-pandemic level (Figure 4.14).
The share of people employed in the tourism sector is high in UfM countries, averaging around 15% across the region. The share is similar also in the GCC economies. Montenegro, where the share of people employed in the tourism sector is the highest, also experienced the largest decrease from 2019 to 2023, with the share dropping from 35% to below 25%.
Notably, the female share of employment in tourism industries remained relatively stable in 2019-2022 (Figure 4.15).
Recently, recognising the economic significance of the tourism sector, countries have placed greater focus on ensuring its long-term sustainability. In this regard, new frameworks have been introduced to enhance the assessment and monitoring of the sector, with particular emphasis on sustainability, resilience, and its wider socio-economic impacts (Box 4.6, Box 4.7, Box 4.8).
Support sustainable tourism development: To enhance tourism’s contribution to GDP and employment while balancing trade-offs, countries should adopt forward-looking national strategies to develop sustainable tourism. This includes the diversification of tourism offerings, where possible, that emphasise local culture and nature, thereby attracting new visitors, reducing overdependence on traditional attractions, and ensuring a more equitable distribution of tourism’s economic benefits.
Empower local businesses and SMEs and support adoption of sustainable practices: Countries should provide targeted incentives, such as training and financial support, to strengthen the capacity of small businesses in the tourism sector, with a focus on enterprises led by women and minority or vulnerable groups; this can help boost employment, ensure tourism revenues benefit local communities, and foster inclusive economic development. Countries should also implement initiatives that help local businesses and SMEs adopt more sustainable practices, e.g. investment schemes for businesses to reduce electricity and water consumption and waste production.
The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UN Tourism) collects data on the contribution of tourism to GDP and employment using countries’ Tourism Satellite Accounts (TSAs). Not all UfM countries have adopted the TSA framework, a joint initiative established by UN Tourism, OECD, the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD), and Eurostat.
Tourism direct GDP provides a measure of the economic contribution of tourism as a percentage of total GDP. It includes all forms of tourism: inbound tourism, domestic tourism and outbound tourism.
Tourism share of employment tracks the percentage of a country’s labour force contributing to the tourism sector. This includes activities such as accommodation services, food and beverage services, transportation, travel agencies and reservation services, and other accommodation and tourism activities.
UNWTO (2023), Methodological Notes to the Tourism Statistics Database, https://doi.org/10.18111/9789284424160; and Travel & Tourism Economic Impact Research (EIR) Reports | WTTC Research Hub
Eurostat (n.d.), Annual Data for Employment by Sex and Age for Selected Tourism Economies (EU 27 and Euro Area 20), Eurostat Database, European Commission, Luxembourg, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/metadata/EN/employ_esms.htm.
Eurostat, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/metadata/EN/employ_esms.htm
Tourism sector as a percentage of GDP
Note: For the Palestinian Authority data are missing. The WTTC includes not only the direct impacts but also the indirect and induced impacts when calculating contributions to GDP. This methodology typically results in higher figures compared to those derived from the dataset developed by UNWTO (see Box 4.5).
Source: WTTC
Employment in tourism sector as a share of total employment
Note: For the Palestinian Authority data are missing. The data provided by the WTTC includes not only the direct impacts but also the indirect and induced impacts when calculating contributions to employment. This methodology results in higher figures compared to those derived from the dataset developed by UNWTO (see Box 4.5).
Source: WTTC
Share of female employment in full-time equivalent jobs
Note: For Czechia, Hungary, and the Palestinian Authority, 2022 data refer to 2021. Number of full-time equivalent jobs by status in tourism industries refers to the total number of work hours contributed by employees, normalised to a standard full-time workload.
Source: UNWTO and ILO.
Tourism represents an important economic sector in the UfM countries in terms of both GDP and employment. However, measuring the contribution of tourism to the economy is challenging. UN Tourism (UNWTO) and the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) maintain databases that provide valuable insights into tourism’s economic impact on GDP and employment, but their respective methodology and analytical scope differ significantly, leading to variations in the reported figures by the two organisations.
UN Tourism collects data on tourism’s direct impact on GDP and employment through the Tourism Satellite Account (TSA) framework. The data represent the immediate economic effects of international visitor expenditure (for GDP) and the direct jobs within the tourism industry (for employment) without factoring in broader economic linkages through indirect and induced effects. In contrast, WTTC seeks to supplement existing official data on travel and tourism with estimates by also estimating the indirect and induced impacts of tourism, including the broader economic activity generated through the tourism supply chain and other sectors indirectly linked to tourism. The wider scope results in higher percentages compared to data from UN Tourism on direct effects, and as such data is not compatible (see table below).
Note: UNWTO and WTTC base their definitions on the International Recommendations for Tourism Statistics 2008 (UN), which serves as a common reference for their respective methodologies.
Recent policy developments have emphasised not only the economic ramifications but also the sustainability of the tourism sector. New frameworks have been developed to assess and monitor various aspects of the tourism sector, with a focus on sustainability, resilience, and socio-economic impact. The OECD Tourism Trends and Policies 2024 publication provides examples of international initiatives focused on indicator frameworks:
European Tourism Indicators System (ETIS): This voluntary tool includes 43 core indicators supplemented by additional metrics. It aims to assess the sustainability of European tourism destinations (EC, 2016).
The EU Tourism Dashboard, introduced in response to the pandemic, comprises 19 indicators and 13 descriptors. These elements aim to support and monitor the green and digital transitions as well as the socio-economic resilience of the tourism sector. The framework leverages data available across EU member states as its foundation (European Commission, 2023).
UN Tourism Indicator Proposal: As part of the work on the Statistical Framework for Measuring the Sustainability of Tourism (SF-MST), UN Tourism proposed an initial set of 30 indicators during the 4th Expert Group Meeting in September 2023 (UN Tourism, 2023).
World Economic Forum Travel and Tourism Development Index: The Index prioritises resilience and sustainable development over competitiveness. A dedicated pillar, Travel and Tourism Sustainability, encompasses 24 indicators across environmental, socio-economic, and demand sustainability themes (WEF, 2024).
World Travel and Tourism Council Global Footprint Dashboard: This tool evaluates the economic, social, and environmental impacts of the tourism sector across 11 core measures and 7 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) relevant to tourism. It facilitates benchmarking across countries and regions, while also offering historical data to track progress over time (WTTC, 2024).
Prior to the Covid-19 pandemic, tourism in the Mediterranean was experiencing rapid growth, contributing to overtourism in key destination cities, beaches, and historical sites. The increase in tourist arrivals placed pressures on these areas, leading to overcrowding, environmental degradation, and strain on local resources.
The gradual recovery of tourism following the pandemic has intensified these concerns. Issues such as water scarcity, coastal erosion, and rising sea levels have become more significant, posing challenges to traditional tourism activities. Furthermore, the development of dense coastal tourism infrastructure has contributed to waste pollution and the degradation of the natural environment, which could diminish the region’s competitiveness as a tourism destination.
In 2016, the Mediterranean Action Plan (UNEP/MAP) of the Barcelona Convention for the protection of the Mediterranean Sea, ratified by 22 Mediterranean countries, endorsed a Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development (MSSD). This regional strategy integrates sustainable tourism as a strategic objective to be reached by 2025. However, the Barcelona Convention’s limited mandate towards environmental issues has impeded significant progress with the sector. Furthermore, a proposal to develop a regional sustainable tourism framework has not yet been advanced, although the tourism sector is included in the Sustainable Consumption and Production Regional Action Plan (SCP RAP) due to be implemented by southern Mediterranean countries by 2026.
Since the Covid-19 pandemic, the Mediterranean region has witnessed a strong recovery in international travel, presenting an opportunity to reshape the tourism sector in line with the objectives of the green transition. To ensure that the region’s tourism sector continues to support economic growth and development, particularly in the Southern Mediterranean region, countries can explore tourism strategies that prioritise long-term environmental sustainability with a high-quality traveller experience. This could include integrating renewable energy into tourism activities, such as transportation and diversifying tourism offerings to include alternatives like ecotourism, cultural tourism, rural tourism, off-season tourism. These strategies can help alleviate the pressures of seasonality and reduce environmental stress on coastal areas, helping to enhance the sector's viability and competitiveness in the future.
In February 2021, the UfM Member States adopted the Ministerial Declaration on Sustainable Blue Economy, which defined ten areas for cooperation, including coastal and maritime tourism.
In November 2024, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and Orascom Development Egypt (ODE) announced a partnership to enhance sustainability in Egypt's tourism sector through a $155 million Sustainability Linked Loan (SLL). The initiative focuses on improving energy and water efficiency and reducing greenhouse gas emissions across hotels in El Gouna. The project aims to cut non-renewable energy consumption by up to 50% and reduce water use by at least 20%, in line with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target 12.2 on resource efficiency.
Additionally, the SLL will support hotel renovations and help refinance existing debt, contributing to Egypt’s broader economic and climate goals. The partnership also aims to generate over 1.5 million new jobs in the tourism sector over the next decade. Overall, efforts to green the tourism sector will not only help reduce CO2 emissions and protect the local environment but also lower the industry’s operating costs, enhancing Egypt’s economic competitiveness and fostering long-term sustainable growth in the sector.
In response to tourism growth and overcrowding of popular destinations, the Portuguese government developed a Sustainable Tourism Plan 2020-23. As part of the plan, Turismo de Portugal established two initiatives to support private sector adoption of sustainable tourism strategies:
Launched in 2021, the 360 Tourism Enterprises Programme aims to accelerate tourism businesses’ integration of Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) criteria into their operations. The programme provides technical assistance including ESG-focused training on management and reporting, access to diverse financing options, sector-specific ESG performance indicators and monitoring instruments to track progress.
The Upgrade Programme targets employees of MSMEs with specialised training courses focused on digitalisation and sustainability. The programme also includes a monitoring component for offering personalised support to micro and small businesses as well as individual entrepreneurs, providing guidance for implementing digital transformation and sustainability projects.
Together, these initiatives seek to advance sustainable tourism growth across the Mediterranean by providing technical resources and skills-training opportunities that equip business to meeting evolving market demands.
Additionally, Portugal’s Tourism Strategy 2027 sets eight strategic goals for sustainable tourism development across three pillars: economic, social, and environmental. To measure progress, Turismo de Portugal developed 43 indicators, around these three dimensions of sustainability and 11 thematic areas (see table below). Data are currently available for 37 of the 43 indicators.
To accelerate the green transition and build the resiliency of island communities, the European Union has selected 30 islands and island groups from ten European countries to participate in the 30 Renewable Islands for 2030 initiative. The programme, running from 2023-2026, aims to provide technical support to 30 islands and island groups to advance efforts towards energy independence and 100% renewable energy sources by 2030.
On the Greek island of Asytpalea, one of the selected EU islands, the municipality, the Greek government and Volkswagen Group are collaborating to achieve full electrification of the island’s transport system and 100% decarbonisation by 2050. As of 2022, only 8% of the island’s energy demand was covered by renewable energy (primarily solar), with the majority of demand supplied by diesel units. As part of the 30 for 2030 initiative, PPCR, the renewable subsidiary of the Greek Public Power Corporation (PPC), was awarded the installation of a hybrid renewable-energy station in 2023. The project will be completed in two phases. In the first phase, a solar panel station of 3.5 MW combined with 10 MWh batteries will cover 61,2% of the island's power demand. Other activities planned under the project include the development of a microgrid in the Maltezana settlement, the second most populated area on the island; and a “smart” marina, with 20 kW of photovoltaics and batteries and electrification of tourist boats.
This green transformation is part of a broader strategy to position the island as a model for integrating renewable energy and sustainable practices into both local life and tourism. By transitioning to renewable energy and electric transport, the island not only reduces its carbon footprint but also sets an example for other Mediterranean islands and coastal destinations looking to balance tourism sector and environmental stewardship.
Visa policies are an important factor that can both facilitate and hamper the mobility of people across the Mediterranean region. Designed to balance security needs with mobility for tourism and business, these policies can influence the choice of tourism destinations (and business hubs), the duration of stay, and the contribution of travel to GDP, among other factors.
Between EU and non-EU UfM countries, considerable variation exists in the types of visas countries require. For non-EU nationals seeking to travel to EU countries for tourism and other non-migration purposes, only Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Israel, and Montenegro have partial or full access to EU countries without any visa needs (Table 4.5).
For EU-citizens seeking to travel to non-EU countries, EU passport holders can either travel visa-free or obtain a visa upon arrival, with the exception of Algeria (Table 4.6).
Algeria remains the only country requiring EU citizens to obtain a visa before arrival.
In Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and Mauritania, EU citizens can obtain a visa upon arrival (VOA).
For intra-subregion travel, visa policies vary across UfM sub-regions. Within the EU and Western Balkans, citizens enjoy visa-free travel; however, across the Southern Mediterranean subregion, barriers remain to intra-regional mobility. Despite this, multiple developments with respect to visa requirements have occurred between Southern Mediterranean countries in recent years (Table 4.7):
The use of e-visas has been implemented for Algerian, Egyptian, and Palestinian nationals travelling to Türkiye.
Turkish travellers are now permitted to obtain a visa upon arrival in Egypt.
For Lebanese nationals, a visa is now required for travel to Tunisia.
Moroccan and Algerian nationals do not need a visa to travel to the other country; however, the airspace between the two countries is closed.
These developments demonstrate mixed results for the easing of visa requirements, as some countries have sought to ease visa processes through e-visa and VOA policies, whereas other countries have introduced new visa requirements.
Between the Western Balkans and Southern Mediterranean countries, visa policies vary, with unilateral openness enjoyed by some countries. For Southern Mediterranean citizens seeking to travel to the Western Balkans (Table 4.8):
Israel and Türkiye enjoy visa-free access to the Western Balkans.
For MENA countries, visas are required for travel to the Western Balkans.
Albania is the only Western Balkan country offering the use of pre-arrival e-visas to MENA countries, with the exception of Algeria.
For Western Balkans citizens travelling to the Southern Mediterranean (Table 4.9):
Algeria and Morocco visas are required for all Western Balkans citizens.
Albanian and Bosnia and Herzegovina citizens enjoy visa-free or VOA access to some Southern Mediterranean countries.
Montenegrin and Macedonian citizens enjoy visa-free or VOA access to Southern Mediterranean countries, apart from Algeria and Morocco.
UfM and the broader MENA region. Visa requirements for GCC citizens traveling to UfM countries vary significantly. For the EU member states, only the United Arab Emirates (UAE) benefits from a full visa-free policy, while citizens of the other GCC countries generally need to obtain a visa prior to entry. Within the MENA region, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey grant visa-free access to most GCC citizens. In the Western Balkans, only citizens of Kuwait and the UAE enjoy visa-free access. Notably, the UAE stands out as the only GCC country with visa-free access to nearly all UfM countries included in the analysis, with the exception of Mauritania.
In terms of visa policies for UfM citizens traveling to GCC countries, EU nationals enjoy visa-free access to the UAE and Oman, while for the remaining GCC countries, a visa on arrival or an e-visa is typically required. For most countries in the MENA region, the GCC requires travellers to obtain an e-visa prior to entry.
Ease requirements for intra-regional travel: Although progress has been made in facilitating visa-free travel between EU and Western Balkan countries, there remains considerable scope for easing visa requirements between the EU and Southern Mediterranean countries and between the Western Balkans and Southern Mediterranean countries. Countries should consider introducing targeted visa exemptions for specific low-risk traveller markets to streamline travel mobility and attract more visitors. This approach would be particularly beneficial for tourism industries in the Southern Mediterranean and Western Balkans, boosting regional tourism and cultural exchange.
Improve communication on visa policies: Countries should develop centralised, multilingual online platforms that provide detailed information on visa policies, entry requirements, and travel updates, making it easier for potential travellers to access accurate and up to date information.
Streamline visa application procedures: UfM countries that require visas for security reasons should consider implementing electronic travel authorizations (eTAs) or e-visas to simplify and expedite application processes. To ensure online applications platforms are accessible, governments should invest in enhancing broadband connectivity and digital infrastructure, especially in the Southern Mediterranean and Western Balkans, ensuring that all travellers can access online services.
Strengthen data collection and sharing: Improved data collection on tourism and business travel remains crucial for measuring the scope and impact of these activities on UfM economies.
Optimise the use of digital technology in visa processes to enhance accessibility and efficiency.
A visa policy refers to a set of rules and regulations implemented by a country to control the entry of foreign nationals into its territory. The information on visas presented in this report is based on the Henley Passport Index. The Index assumes that the passport holder is an adult citizen travelling alone and seeking a short stay (between three days and several months) rather than a transit stay, and that entry to the destination is for tourist or business purposes.
The database collects information on whether: i) no visa is required; ii) travellers can obtain a VOA, a visitor’s permit, or an eTA when entering the destination; iii) travellers need a traditional visa, government-approved e-visa, or government approval for a VOA prior to departure.
An e-visa is a digital version of a traditional visa applied for through an online application. An electronic travel authorization (eTA) is a digital travel permit for tourism or business purposes that often involves a simpler application process than traditional and e-visas and is typically used for short-term visits. A visitor permit, or visitor visa, is often required for stays exceeding 90 days and can be used for tourism, study, or business purposes.
OSCE (2021), Gender Responsive Short-term Visa Policies, Poland, https://www.osce.org/odihr/496321
World Tourism Organization (2024), Tourism Visa Openness Report 2023, UNWTO, Madrid, https://doi.org/10.18111/9789284425044.
As of April 2024
Note: Green cells indicate visa-free access. Light red cells indicate that incoming citizens require a visa prior to entering the country.
Source: Henley & Partners 2024, Henley Passport Index, https://www.henleyglobal.com/passport-index.
As of April 2024
Note: Green cells indicate visa-free access. Yellow cells indicate a visa-on-arrival policy. Light red cells indicate that incoming citizens require a prior visa to enter the country.
Source: Henley & Partners 2024, Henley Passport Index, https://www.henleyglobal.com/passport-index.
As of April 2024
Note: Green cells indicate visa-free access. Yellow cells: visa-on-arrival policy. Light red cells: incoming citizens require a visa prior to entering the country. Light red cells with “e-visa”: incoming citizens can apply for an e-visa prior to departure.
Source: Henley & Partners 2024, Henley Passport Index, https://www.henleyglobal.com/passport-index.
As of April 2024
Note: Green cells indicate visa-free access. Light red cells: incoming citizens require a visa prior to entering the country. Light red cells with “e-visa”: incoming citizens can apply for an e-visa prior to departure.
Source: Henley & Partners 2024, Henley Passport Index, https://www.henleyglobal.com/passport-index.
As of April 2024
Note: Green cells indicate visa-free access. Yellow cells: visa-on-arrival policy. Light red cells: incoming citizens require a visa prior to entering the country.
Source: Henley & Partners 2024, Henley Passport Index, https://www.henleyglobal.com/passport-index.
As of May 2025
Note: Green cells indicate visa-free access. Light red cells indicate that incoming citizens require a visa prior to entering the country.
Source: Henley & Partners 2024, Henley Passport Index, https://www.henleyglobal.com/passport-index
As of May 2025
Note: Green cells indicate visa-free access. Light red cells indicate that incoming citizens require a visa prior to entering the country. Yellow cells indicate Visa at the arrival policy.
Source: Henley & Partners 2024, Henley Passport Index, https://www.henleyglobal.com/passport-index
Student mobility within the Mediterranean region is governed by distinct visa policies that differ from requirements for tourism and business travel.
In the EU, students from other EU countries who are pursuing an education qualification abroad benefit from visa-free travel. However, they may be required to register their residence with local authorities after three months. For students from non-EU countries, including those from the Southern Mediterranean and Western Balkan regions, a long-stay visa is required – with the exception of Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein. To obtain a long stay-visa, non-EU students are typically required to submit proof of admission, sufficient funds, health insurance, and accommodation.
Outside of the EU, intra-regional mobility is less streamlined. In the Western Balkans, countries such as Albania, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina require student visas for non-nationals. In the MENA region, a long-term visa is mandated for all international students. Lastly, for Türkiye and Israel, student visas are required for all international students.
This variation in student visa requirements, especially the more stringent criteria for non-EU students, underscores the diverse regulatory frameworks governing student mobility across the region. These policies, along with the financial costs and processing time for visa applications, can impact student’s ability to access education opportunities and move between countries.
Note: Student mobility under the Erasmus+ framework is explored in Chapter 5.
Visa openness policies facilitate the mobility of people for tourism purposes to support the growth of the tourism sector. Designed to balance security needs with openness, these policies can influence travellers’ choice of tourism destinations and duration of stay and, in turn, impact the contribution of tourism to GDP, among other factors.
Significantly, emerging economies are driving trends towards increasing visa openness globally. Within the UfM, Southern Mediterranean and Western Balkan countries are playing a vital role in driving tourism visa openness, although openness varies among these countries.
UN Tourism reports that levels of reciprocity in visa policies have declined over the past 10 years. Furthermore, current trends in unilateral visa openness demonstrate that reciprocal policies may not be necessary or beneficial in all cases.
In 2023, 42% of visa policies were reciprocal compared to 71% in 2008, 54% in 2013, and 51% in 2015. The proportion of reciprocally closed policies, where both countries require traditional visas, fell from 57% to 17% between 2008 and 2023. Between emerging and advanced economies globally, emerging economies have unilaterally removed visa requirements in 17% of country pairs, while advanced economy counterparts continue to require a traditional visa.
These figures reveal a trend towards unilateral visa openness and an inclination for destination countries to facilitate entry for international visitors without reciprocal policies.
Percentage, 2023
Source: UNWTO Tourism Visa Openness Report 2023.
Within the UfM, the use of e-visas remains limited to Southern Mediterranean and Western Balkan destination countries, including Albania, Morocco, and Türkiye. However, the EU will implement a new electronic travel authorisation system, the European Travel Information and Authorisation System (ETIAS), in late 2026.
The ETIAS will require short-term travellers from over 60 formerly visa-exempt countries to obtain digital authorisation or be denied entry at the Schengen Zone border. Among non-EU UfM countries, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro will be required to obtain an ETIAS prior to departure. The objective of ETIAs is to identify potential security threats and risks posed by travellers from visa-exempt countries; it is not yet clear how this could impact tourism to the EU. Notably, nationals required to have visas to travel to any of the 30 European ETIAS countries are ineligible for an ETIAS travel authorisation and must follow pre-existing visa application processes.
The EU will also implement a new Entry/Exit System (EES) that will help enhance ETIAS efficiency and provide reliable data on short-term (up to 90 days within any 180-day period) travel inflows and outflows. This system is expected to start in October 2025 and will record the identity information, type of travel document, biometric data, and date and place of entry/exit of third-country nationals, in full respect of fundamental rights and data protection. All EU countries, with the exception of Cyprus and Ireland, will require EES biometrics at the border.
Efforts to ease barriers to services trade can yield significant benefits by reducing trade costs for firms that provide services and enhancing productivity in manufacturing. Although cross-border movement of people does not account for a large share of services trade, it is nonetheless essential - especially for trade in business services, an important channel for knowledge transfer.
The OECD Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI) provides a measure of the restrictiveness of an economy’s regulatory and policy framework with respect to trade in services. Five types of policy measures are considered in the Index: restrictions on foreign entry; restrictions to movement of people; barriers to competition; regulatory transparency; and other discriminatory measures.
Restrictions on the movement of people, including foreign service providers (e.g. professionals like consultants or engineers), remain the second-higher barrier to trade in services, after restrictions on foreign entry. Liberalisation in 2023 included policies affecting trade in services, such as lifting of remaining travel restrictions after the COVID-19 pandemic.
The most restrictive sectors are air transport, legal services, and accounting and auditing services. Among these sectors, service trade restrictions affecting the mobility of people can involve labour market tests, limitations on duration of stay for contractual services suppliers, restrictions on acquiring land and real estate, and local presence required for cross-border supply. For legal services and accounting and auditing services, requirements such as taking local examinations or obtaining a licence or authorisation to practice can impede trade in services.
By contrast, physical infrastructure services - especially architecture, construction, and engineering - have benefitted from liberalisation.
From 0 (open) to 1 (close)
Note: The OECD Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI) provides annually comparable information on regulations affecting trade in services across 50 countries and 22 sectors from 2014 to 2023; https://www.oecd.org/en/topics/services-trade-restrictiveness-index.html
See also: Benz et al. (2023), Right here, right now? New evidence on the economic effects of services trade reform, OECD Trade Policy Paper, April, n°271, https://doi.org/10.1787/1159657f-en.
Source: OECD STRI 2023.
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[10] ICMPD (2024), Diaspora Engagement Frameworks in the Middle East and North Africa: A Review, International Centre for Migration Policy Development, https://www.icmpd.org/file/download/60834/file/EMM5_Diaspora_engagement_EN.pdf.
[3] ICMPD (2024), ICMPD Migration Outlook Mediterranean 2024: Eight migration issues to look out for in 2024, International Centre for Migration Policy Development, https://www.icmpd.org/file/download/60922/file/ICMPD_Mediterranean_Migration%2520Outlook%25202024.pdf.
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