This chapter explains the importance of fostering greater participation in adult learning in Thailand, which can strengthen a culture of learning throughout the life course and help the country adapt to challenges brought about by a rapidly ageing population, as well as successfully adapt to global megatrends. It also describes the current policies and practices to upskill and reskill adults in various settings, including in formal and informal work. It then explores three opportunities to promote greater participation in adult learning: (1) increasing the quality and labour market relevance of adult learning opportunities; (2) addressing barriers to participation in adult learning; and (3) increasing participation in adult learning among disadvantaged groups.
OECD Skills Strategy Thailand
Abstract
Participation in adult learning can bring numerous socio-economic benefits to countries. Adult learning is central to helping people and countries adapt to global megatrends and stay competitive through upskilling and reskilling opportunities. The traditional approach of front-loading skills development in initial education is becoming increasingly untenable in a world of rapid technological progress, advances in artificial intelligence, the green transition, and geopolitical tensions in Southeast Asia and the rest of the world that are reshaping production patterns and affecting the demand for skills. Adult learning can help individuals continuously gain new knowledge and develop new skills, thereby enabling countries to respond to changing labour market needs and reduce skills imbalances (OECD, 2019[1]).
Thailand has been increasingly recognising the importance of adult learning in driving national growth. As Thailand is one of the fasting ageing countries in the world, with more than a quarter of the population projected to be 65 years or older by 2040 (WHO, 2023[2]; World Bank, 2016[3]), adult learning will play an increasingly important role in ensuring that the country stays productive, innovative and competitive, especially in key sectors highlighted in the Thailand 4.0 strategy (Ministry of Industry, 2017[4]). In recognition of this, Thailand has a long history of promoting adult learning through policy. Under the National Strategy 2018-2037, the National Strategy on Developing and Strengthening of Human Capital aims to promote the multidimensional (i.e. physical, mental, intellectual) development of Thai citizens of all ages, equip them with 21st century skills, and help them acquire positive attitudes towards lifelong learning (Office of the Prime Minister, 2017[5]). More recently, Thailand also announced the Learning Encouragement Act, B.E. 2566 in 2023, which aims to promote lifelong learning1 and provide educational opportunities, especially to those who have not received formal education or who are from disadvantaged regions (Sawasdee Thailand, 2023[6]). Thailand is also one of the highest-spending countries on adult learning in Southeast Asia, allotting between 2 and 4% of its public education spending (UNESCO, 2022[7]).
However, despite these welcome policy reforms, Thailand still faces challenges in fostering greater participation in adult learning. In 2022, only 0.3% of Thai adults aged 25 to 54 years old participated in formal and non-formal education and training in the previous twelve months (UNESCO, 2022[8]). The share of firms offering formal training in Thailand is also lower (18%) than the ASEAN average (23%), and participation rates decrease significantly along with enterprise size, with only 14% of small firms having access to training in comparison to 19% of medium firms and 51% of large firms (World Bank, 2023[9]). Furthermore, access to adult learning is especially limited in Thailand’s widespread informal sector. It is estimated that informal employment constitutes 65% of all employment in Thailand, suggesting that a significant proportion of the country’s workforce has limited opportunities to upgrade their skills through employer-provided training and would have to train autonomously (OECD, 2025[10]; ILO, 2022[11]).
Boosting participation in adult learning in Thailand can help maximise the potential of its rapidly ageing population, as well as successfully adapt to global megatrends. Focusing on reaching disadvantaged groups, such as older adults, workers in the informal sector, and adults in rural areas, can help ensure that Thailand’s adult learning initiatives result in inclusive and equitable outcomes for all. This chapter provides a detailed assessment of adult learning in Thailand and presents policy recommendations for three opportunities to foster greater participation in adult learning, namely:
Improving the quality and labour market relevance of adult learning opportunities.
Reducing barriers to participation in adult learning opportunities.
Increasing participation in adult learning among disadvantaged groups.
This section provides an overview of the adult learning system in Thailand, as well as assessment of the country’s performance on key adult learning indicators. Adult learning opportunities in the country are supported by a framework of laws, strategies and policies, and are offered by relevant government agencies and various education and training providers. Despite these efforts, an assessment of Thailand’s performance on key indicators indicates that there is significant room for Thailand to improve participation in, and the quality and relevance of, adult learning opportunities.
Overview of Thailand’s policies and practices for fostering greater participation in adult learning
Given the increasingly important role that adult learning plays in Thailand, effective, evidence-based policies are needed to adequately provide high-quality adult learning opportunities to all segments of the country’s population. Thailand has various policies and strategies in place to promote learning and education throughout the life course, as well as strengthen the capacities of local governance bodies to provide community-based adult learning practices. This section summarises the relevant legislation, strategies and policies that currently guide the provision of adult learning opportunities in Thailand, as well as presents an overview of the country’s adult learning system.
Relevant legislation, strategies and policies for fostering greater participation in adult learning
There are numerous laws and strategies dedicated to adult learning in Thailand (see Table 3.1). Lifelong learning is acknowledged broadly in the National Education Act B.E. 2545 (1999), the main legislative document in the country’s education sector. The Act defines lifelong education as “education resulting from [the] integration of formal, non-formal and informal education so as to create [the] ability for continuous lifelong development of [the] quality of life” (Office of the Prime Minister, 1999[12]). In addition, the Skills Development Promotion Act B.E. 2545 (A.D. 2002) is one of the oldest and most important adult learning laws in Thailand, as it offers various incentives to businesses to upskill their employees. Furthermore, the Act established the Skill Development Fund, which provides loans to employees who wish to participate in training and to businesses who wish to organise skills development opportunities (Department of Skills Development, 2002[13]).
Source: ASEAN (1999[12]), National Education Act of B.E.2542 (1999), https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Thailand184.pdf; OECD (2021[14]), Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation Policy and Strategy, https://stip.oecd.org/stip/interactive-dashboards/policy-initiatives/2023%2Fdata%2FpolicyInitiatives%2F26107; IOM UN Migration (2022[15]), IOM and the Department of Skills Development Collaborate to Facilitate Skills Development for Migrant Workers in Thailand, https://thailand.iom.int/news/iom-and-department-skills-development-collaborate-facilitate-skills-development-migrant-workers-thailand; Ministry of Labour (2002[13]), Skill Development Promotion Act B.E. 2545 (A.D. 2002), www.mol.go.th/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2018/02/311en.pdf; NXPO (2023[16]), Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation Policy, www.nxpo.or.th/th/en/higher-education-science-research-and-innovation-policy/; office of the National Economic and Social Development Board (2017[5]), National Strategy 2018-2037 (Summary), www.bic.moe.go.th/images/stories/pdf/National_Strategy_Summary.pdf; OECD Skills Strategy Thailand policy questionnaire; Office of the Education Council, (2017[17]), National Qualifications Framework (Revised Edition), https://backoffice.onec.go.th/uploads/Book/1552-file.pdf; Office of the Prime Minister (2017[5]), National Strategy 2018-2037, http://nscr.nesdc.go.th/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/National-Strategy-Eng-Final-25-OCT-2019.pdf; Office of the Education Council (2019[18]), (Draft) Action Plan for the Production and Development of Human Resources in Occupations that are Urgently Needed for Development, https://drive.google.com/file/d/1B9z3jQulPok0k1t3W-tqs7AjUVvhEJ4o/view; Prajuablap, M. (2022[19]), Lifelong learning policy in Thailand, https://so06.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jclmd_psru/article/view/254645; Sawasdee Thailand (2023[6]), The Learning Promotion Act Elevates NFE to the “Department of Learning Promotion”, www.thailand.go.th/issue-focus-detail/001_06_051; UNESCO (2008[20]), Promotion of non-formal and informal education act, B.E. 2551-2008 (Vol. 125, Part 41a, Government Gazette, dated 3rd March B.E. 2551 (2008), https://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/en/2008/promotion-non-formal-and-informal-education-act-be-2551-2008-vol-125-part-41a-government.
In more recent years, numerous other laws, strategies and policies have been adopted to promote lifelong learning, highlighting its growing importance in Thailand. For instance, the National Strategy on Developing and Strengthening Human Capital is one of the key components of the National Strategy 2018-2037. It aims to enhance human capital by providing improved education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for Thai citizens of all ages (Office of the Prime Minister, 2017[5]). Furthermore, the recent Learning Promotion Act B.E. 2566 (2023) aims to promote lifelong learning, learning for self-development, and learning for academic qualifications in response to a rapidly changing world, while the Action Plan for the Production and Development of Human Resources in Occupations that are Urgently Needed for Development builds on Thailand’s National Qualifications Framework, identifies key sectors for manpower production, and assesses the supply of demand for skills in partnership with businesses (Office of the Education Council, 2019[18]; Prajuablap, 2022[19]; Sawasdee Thailand, 2023[6]).
Overview of Thailand’s adult learning system
In Thailand, adult learning was initially introduced to improve literacy levels and primary educational attainment among adults who dropped out of school (Ministry of Education, 2008[21]; DVV International and Chulalongkorn University, 2019[22]). Since then, the range of adult learning opportunities has expanded significantly to include secondary and vocational education and training. At present, the provision of adult learning programmes, which are often non-formal, is organised into several forms, including short occupation training programmes for the development of life skills, skills training for job employment, group learning for students of the same occupation or trade, and occupational development through the application of technology (e.g. ICT). Non-formal vocational programmes are also available in Thailand, which come in the form of short training programmes, group vocational courses, vocational certificate programmes equivalent to lower secondary school, and non-formal occupational certificate programmes (UNESCO, 2015[23]; Thongdee et al., 2022[24]; Leowarin, 2010[25]; Yenjai, 2014[26]).
From 2008 to 2023, the main government agency responsible for the management, administration and co‑ordination of adult learning in Thailand was the Office of Non-formal and Informal Education (ONIE), which fell under the responsibility of Office of the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Education (Charungkaittikul, 2020[27]; Sawasdee Thailand, 2023[28]; DVV International and Chulalongkorn University, 2019[22]). Upon the adoption of the Learning Encouragement Act B.E. 2566 in 2023, ONIE became the Department of Learning Encouragement. The Department is responsible for the promotion of lifelong learning and related policies, as well as the implementation of non-formal and informal education programmes, including flexible learning opportunities outside traditional formal education. The Department also supports community learning centres (CLCs), which are hubs for lifelong learning that offer programmes tailored to local community needs. For all these initiatives, the Department is targeting specific groups of adults, including individuals who have not completed formal education, various other disadvantaged and marginalised groups, as well as community members seeking skill development or continuing education opportunities.
Several actors – both within and beyond government – play an active role in the provision of adult learning opportunities throughout Thailand (see Table 3.2). In central government, the Department of Skills Development under the Ministry of Labour is the main governmental institution responsible for providing workforce upskilling opportunities, including through the administration of the Skills Development Promotion Act B.E. 2545, which provides incentives for adult learning and established the Skills Development Fund (Department of Skills Development, 2002[13]). Several other ministries, such as the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Defence, the Ministry of Interior, the Ministry of Public Health, the Ministry of Social Development and Human Security, the Ministry of Transport, and the Ministry of Tourism and Sports also manage educational offers in specialised fields or in local communities (MOE, 2017[29]).
Moreover, multiple institutions at the local level are active in the provision of adult learning opportunities in Thailand, such as local administration organisations (LAO) that provide formal, non-formal and informal learning to adults; CLCs that provide non-formal education through community-based approaches; Non-formal and Informal Education Centres (NFEs) that provide non-formal and informal learning activities at the sub-district level; and schools for the elderly that provide opportunities for Thai senior citizens to develop their skills and participate in social activities (Belete et al., 2022[30]; Yenjai, 2014[26]; Department of Older Persons, 2017[31]; MOE, 2017[29]).
Thailand’s adult learning system involves a wide range of government actors, each with distinct responsibilities and the types of learning opportunities offered. This highlights the importance of key policy documents (see Table 3.1) that articulate a shared vision and strategic direction for these efforts. While the distribution of the skills mandate across multiple ministries and bodies across levels of government reflects a broad commitment to adult learning, effective co‑ordination mechanisms are essential to increase transparency, minimise policy overlaps, and improve implementation efficiency (see Opportunity 2 in Chapter 4).
Source: Belete, et al. (2022[30]), Community Learning Centres (CLCs) for Adult Learning and Education (ALE): development in and by communities, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11159-022-09954-w; Department of Older Persons (2017[31]), Situation of the Thai Elderly 2017, www.dop.go.th/download/knowledge/th1552463947-147_1.pdf; Department of Skill Development (2021[32]), Vision/Mission, www.dsd.go.th/DSD/Home/Vision; Gonçalves (2019[33]), Financing TVET: A comparative analysis in six Asian countries, www.afd.fr/en/ressources/financing-tvet-comparative-analysis-six-asian-countries; IOM (2022[15]), IOM and the Department of Skills Development Collaborate to Facilitate Skills Development for Migrant Workers in Thailand, https://thailand.iom.int/news/iom-and-department-skills-development-collaborate-facilitate-skills-development-migrant-workers-thailand; Kearns & Reghenzani-Keams (2018[34]), Towards good active ageing for all: In a context of deep demographic change and dislocation, https://pascalobservatory.org/sites/default/files/towards_good_active_ageing-peter_kearns-dec7.pdf; Ministry of Education (2017[29]), Education in Thailand, www.bic.moe.go.th/images/stories/pdf/EDUCATION_IN_THAILAND_2017.pdf; OECD (2020[35]), OECD Economic Surveys: Thailand 2020, https://doi.org/10.1787/ad2e50fa-en; Prachyapruit, A. (2023[36]), Development of a Thai university model oriented to working adults and the retired elderly, https://so02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/hasss/article/view/260752/176957; Yenjai, P. (2014[26]), Community learning in Thailand, www.dvv-international.de/en/adult-education-and-development/editions/aed-812014-communities/community-learning-in/community-learning-in-thailand.
In addition to these publicly managed institutions at the central and local levels, the private sector also plays a significant role in the provision of adult learning opportunities in Thailand. For instance, as described in the performance section below, more than half (51%) of large firms in Thailand offer training to their employees (see Figure 3.4) (World Bank, 2023[9]). Recent studies show that Thai employees primarily consider their employers as key to their upskilling needs, even more so than the government. For instance, 52% of Thai employees2 believe that employers are primarily responsible for providing financial incentives for upskilling and for recognising their skills (e.g. through certifications and additional benefits). Moreover, 47% of Thai employees also believe that their employers are responsible for providing information on skills needed for different job roles in comparison to 27% of employees who believe that this responsibility lies with the government. 42% of Thai employees also believe that employers are responsible for providing access to diversified skilling programmes, in comparison to only 29% of employees who believe that the government should do so (Bhandari, 2023[37]).
Thailand’s performance in fostering greater participation in adult learning
While Thailand has made significant efforts to introduce policies and initiatives to foster greater participation in adult learning, several barriers need to be addressed to increase the supply of and demand for adult learning opportunities in the country. This section presents Thailand’s performance in key adult learning indicators in comparison to neighbouring countries in Southeast Asia and select countries from across the OECD.
There is scope to strengthen adult skills and increase participation in education and training
Thailand has made good progress in expanding access to education, with three in four adults aged 25 and over having completed primary education (see Figure 3.1). Continued efforts to strengthen participation beyond the primary level could help raise overall attainment further. Currently, 54% of adults have completed lower secondary and 39% upper secondary education – figures that highlight both progress and the opportunity to further align with attainment levels seen in other countries in Southeast Asia and the OECD (World Bank, 2024[38]).
Source: World Bank (2024[38]), Educational attainment, at least completed primary, population 25+ years, total (%) (cumulative), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.CUAT.ZS.
Thailand performs relatively well in tertiary education compared to other countries in Southeast Asia. The share of adults with short-cycle tertiary qualification (17%) and bachelor’s degrees or equivalent (17%) exceeds the ASEAN average. Moreover, Thailand also has one of the highest shares of adults with a master’s degree or equivalent (2%) in Southeast Asia (World Bank, 2024[38]). This comparatively strong performance in higher education may be attributed to higher education expansion policies and the growth of both public and private universities (Chaemchoy, Puthpongsiriporn and Fry, 2021[39]; Crocco, 2018[40]). Nonetheless, despite these gains in higher education, the majority of Thai adults have attained only lower levels of education. This limits the development of foundational skills within the workforce, posing challenges for productivity and labour market adaptability.
There is room to strengthen foundational skills among Thai youth and adults (see Figure 3.2). For example, 65% of individuals report difficulties with basic literacy tasks, such as understanding short texts, drawing simple inferences, or integrating information. Similarly, 74% face challenges with basic digital skills, including navigating digital tools or using online information to solve simple problems. There is also room to further develop socio-emotional skills, with 30% of youth and adults indicating they do not view themselves as open, curious or imaginative (World Bank, 2024[38]). These findings point to key areas where targeted interventions could support stronger learning outcomes and more inclusive skill development.
Developing higher-level skills can play a key role in improving labour market outcomes in Thailand, as individuals with stronger literacy, digital, and socio-emotional skills tend to earn higher incomes than those with lower skill levels. This underscores the importance of fostering advanced skills to promote more inclusive and equitable economic opportunities. For instance, in 2024, adults demonstrating lower levels of foundational literacy report a monthly income of THB 15 692 (Thai Baht) (EUR 398) in comparison to THB 22 016 (EUR 559) among adults with higher levels of foundational literacy (World Bank, 2024[41]).
Source: World Bank (2024[41]), Fostering Foundational Skills in Thailand, www.worldbank.org/en/country/thailand/publication/fostering-foundational-skills-in-thailand.
Many adults are not learning due to low motivation and time constraints
Participation in adult learning could help Thai adults develop the skills they need to thrive in an increasingly complex and competitive world of work. However, only a small proportion of all Thai individuals aged 25 to 54 years old have participated in formal and non-formal education and training in the previous 12 months (see Figure 3.3). Despite various government efforts to expand the supply of adult learning opportunities (see Table 3.1), participation remains limited due to persistent demand-side barriers, including low motivation and time constraints (see Opportunity 2). In 2022, only 0.3% of adults in Thailand participated in adult learning opportunities, placing the country second to last in Southeast Asia, ahead of only Cambodia (0.2%) and ranking well below the participation rates of selected OECD countries used as comparators. While the average rate of participation across the ASEAN is also low (0.8%), Thailand’s participation rate remains significantly below this benchmark (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2024[42]).
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2021[43]), SDG 4 Indicator Dashboard: Indicator 4.3.1, http://sdg4-data.uis.unesco.org/.
While many Thai employees believe that employers are primarily responsible for providing access to skills development opportunities, only 18% of Thai firms in the formal economy offered training to permanent, full-time employees in 2016 (Bhandari, 2023[37]; World Bank, 2016[44]; World Bank, 2023[9]).3 This is lower than the ASEAN average of 23% and is significantly lower than select OECD countries, as well as some countries in the region such as the Philippines (60%) and Singapore (43%) (see Panel A in Figure 3.4). Access to training also largely depends on firm size,4 with small-sized firms offering significantly less training than larger firms (see Panel B in Figure 3.4). In Thailand, only 14% of small firms offer formal training to their employees, in comparison to 19% of medium firms and 51% of large firms (World Bank, 2023[9]). Low investments in training among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Thailand stems from multiple reasons, such as the lack of human resource management skills among business leaders, the lack of a strategy for training employees, and reluctance among employees to participate in training (Grimsholm and Poblete, 2010[45]). This is an important policy issue, as SMEs make up a significant share of the Thai economy – 99.5% of all enterprises in Thailand in 2023 (Asian Development Bank (ADB), 2023[46]).
Note: Due to lack of data, the latest available year was used for the following countries: Chile (2010); Philippines (2015), Myanmar and Thailand (2016); Lao PDR (2018); Malaysia (2019); Germany (2021); and Cambodia, Indonesia, Mexico, Singapore, Viet Nam (2023).
Source: World Bank (2023[9]), Enterprise Surveys: Workforce, www.enterprisesurveys.org/en/data/exploretopics/workforce.
In addition to a limited supply of adult learning opportunities, the demand for them is also low in Thailand, with as many as 92% of adults reporting that they do not wish to participate in adult learning for multiple reasons (see Opportunity 2). Many adults also face a range of obstacles to participation. The most commonly cited reason for not participating in adult learning is the lack of time, as long working hours prevent many adults from attending classes (OECD, 2020[35]; Bhandari, 2023[37]; Kisi, 2021[47]). In addition to time, motivational and attitudinal barriers also prevent Thai adults from participating in educational offers. These include age-related misconceptions, such as the perception that they are too old to learn, or that there is no further need given that they have already studied. Many adults also lack awareness about the need to develop their skills further (OECD, 2020[35]; Vandeweyer et al., 2020[48]).
Especially disadvantaged populations, including those in the informal sector, are not learning
The lack of training is particularly an issue for adults in Thailand’s widespread informal sector, where there are more limited opportunities to upgrade their skills through employer-provided training and where skills recognition remains challenging (OECD, 2025[10]). It is estimated that informal employment constitutes 65% of all employment in Thailand (see Figure 3.5). While this is lower than the ASEAN average of 72%, it is still significantly higher than many OECD countries (ILO, 2022[11]). The Office of the National Economic and Social Development Council (NESDC) estimates that the share of informal workers in Thailand will rise due to changes in work patterns and increases in the number of gig-workers in the country who take independent jobs sporadically and for a short period of time (NESDC, 2023[49]).
Source: ILO (2022[11]), Statistics on the informal economy, https://ilostat.ilo.org/topics/informality/.
Thai youth and adults with low levels of literacy, digital and socio-emotional skills are more likely to be found in the informal employment sector (World Bank, 2024[41]). Given that the provision of adult learning opportunities in Thailand is closely tied to employment in companies (Bhandari, 2023[37]; Department of Skills Development, 2002[13]), workers in the informal economy are at great risk of lagging behind in terms of acquiring the foundational skills they need to thrive in a rapidly changing world of work.
Extending adult learning opportunities to disadvantaged populations, especially those found in Thailand’s widespread informal sector, will require increased investments in adult learning among all stakeholders. Adult learning opportunities in Thailand are co-funded with the private sector and international sources such as bilateral and multilateral aid (UNESCO, 2022[7]). However, the share of financing from each of these sources is unclear, and systematic and internationally comparable data on public spending on adult learning is limited.
Nonetheless, available data indicates that Thailand is already one of the highest-spending countries in Southeast Asia on adult learning, also surpassing select OECD countries (see Figure 3.6). While a majority of countries in the region allocate only between 1% to 2% of their public expenditure on education to adult learning, Thailand spends allocates 2% and 4%. However, the country still lags behind Malaysia, the Philippines and Singapore. Thailand has reported planning to increase spending on adult learning, with a particular focus on unemployed adults, disadvantaged adults due to lack of education and skills, residents of remote or rural areas, adults with disabilities, minority groups (ethnic, linguistic and religious), and indigenous peoples (UNESCO, 2022[7]).
Source: UNESCO (2022[50]), 5th Global Report on Adult Learning and Education (GRALE), https://data.humdata.org/dataset/grale-5-dataset.
Thailand’s performance in fostering greater participation in adult learning is influenced by a range of factors at the individual, institutional and societal levels. Drawing on findings from a literature review, desk research, a policy questionnaire distributed to Thai policymakers, and in-depth virtual consultations with stakeholders, the following opportunities for improvement have been identified for fostering greater participation in adult learning in Thailand:
1. Increasing the quality and relevance of adult learning opportunities.
2. Addressing barriers to participation in adult learning.
3. Increasing participation in adult learning among disadvantaged groups.
Opportunity 1: Improving the quality and labour market relevance of adult learning opportunities
In order to foster greater participation in adult learning, Thailand could make learning opportunities for adults more attractive by ensuring that they are of high quality and are relevant to the country’s current and future labour market needs. Adults and firms would be more likely to invest their time and resources into training opportunities if they are assured that these opportunities adhere to national and international standards. Furthermore, investments in training would especially be worthwhile for adults when they are able to use these new skills in their current and future employment opportunities.
Two key recommendations have been identified to support Thailand in improving the quality and labour market relevance of adult learning opportunities: (1) improving internal and external quality assurance mechanisms for formal and non-formal adult learning, and (2) steering adult learning provision and educational choices towards areas of skills shortage.
Recommendation 1: Improving internal and external quality assurance mechanisms for formal and non-formal adult learning
Participation in adult learning offer numerous benefits, including access to better quality jobs, greater employability, increased productivity, and improved well-being (OECD, 2019[51]). However, in order to achieve these benefits, adult learning opportunities need to be of high quality and capable of delivering successful outcomes for learners. Given the constraints on private and public resources, guaranteeing the quality of adult learning is even more crucial to ensure that individuals’ investments provide value for money (OECD, 2021[52]; OECD, 2023[53]; OECD, 2024[54]). Robust quality assurance mechanisms not only provide prospective learners with confidence in the value of these opportunities but also enhance trust in the broader adult learning system (OECD, 2021[52]).
Quality assurance processes were formally integrated in Thailand’s educational system through the enactment of the National Education Act of 1999. This legislation established an educational quality assurance system composed of two parallel mechanisms: internal and external quality assurance (Hemthong, Thanasatchawat and Savatsomboon, 2023[55]; Office of the Prime Minister, 1999[12]). Internal quality assurance (IQA) is the responsibility of training providers, who are required to continually assess their own performance and publish annual reports to ensure transparency and accountability (Office of the Prime Minister, 1999[12]). In contrast, external quality assurance (EQA) is overseen by the Office for National Education Standards and Quality Assessment (ONESQA). This process involved ONESQA dispatching a panel of assessors to gather data about the institution’s performance and evaluate it against established criteria and standards (ONESQA, 2021[56]). The interplay between the two mechanisms is depicted in Figure 3.7).
Source: Adapted from Ministry of Education (2014[57]), Manual for the Internal Quality Assurance for Higher Education Institutions: Office of the Higher Education Commission (OHEC), www.dqe.mhesi.go.th/bhes2/56-12-27%20Manual%20for%20the%20Internal%20Final.pdf.
Formal and non-formal adult learning in Thailand is only partially addressed by these systems, which primarily focus on learning opportunities within the formal education system. For instance, formal and non-formal adult learning opportunities are subject to internal quality assurance processes only when they are provided by HEIs overseen by the Office for Higher Education Commission (OHEC) under the Ministry of Education (Office of the Prime Minister, 1999[12]). However, OHEC’s mandate in relation to internal quality assurance primarily targets higher education, leaving adult learning programmes beyond higher education largely outside its purview.
At present, there is no specific guidance for conducting self-assessments of adult learning programmes offered outside the higher education sector (OHEC, 2014[58]). This highlights a significant gap in the coverage of quality assurance mechanisms. To address this, Thailand must expand the scope of internal quality assurance processes to encompass formal and non-formal adult learning opportunities beyond higher education, including those provided by non-HEI adult learning providers.
Government representatives in Thailand have highlighted the significant role of internal quality assurance, conducted through self-assessments, in shaping the quality of in formal and non-formal adult learning in Thailand. Feedback mechanisms, such as surveys administered to learners and employers, are commonly used by training institutions to gather insights on the quality and relevance of their programmes. This feedback is then leveraged to implement improvements, enhancing the overall effectiveness of the training provided (OECD, 2024[59]).
These self-assessments are important for assuring the quality of the adult learning system in Thailand, enabling providers to evaluate their performance against established standards and criteria. By promoting accountability – often through the preparation of written reports – self-assessments not only help providers identify their strengths and weaknesses but also support the development and implementation of continuous improvement plans (OECD, 2021[52]; OECD, 2023[53]; OECD, 2021[60]). In a diverse adult learning system with many providers, self-assessments can empower institutions to take ownership of their own quality improvement, while also easing the government’s burden in conducting external quality assurance processes (OECD, 2024[54]).
However, there is scope for enhancing these internal quality assurance mechanisms for adult learning in Thailand. The government currently lacks the capacity to fully integrate adult learning in existing quality assurance frameworks. For instance, the absence of a national database to consolidate information from self-assessments presents a critical gap. Such a database could enable policymakers to generate an overview of the quality of formal and non-formal adult learning in the country, facilitating data-driven decision-making and targeted improvements. Furthermore, the scope of quality indicators available to assess adult learning programmes is notably limited. Existing indicators primarily focus on adults enrolled in graduate programmes within HEIs, leaving many aspects of formal and non-formal adult learning unmeasured. Expanding the range of quality indicators to encompass a broader spectrum of adult learning activities would provide a more robust basis for evaluating programme performance and driving systemic improvements.
To enhance the effectiveness of self-assessments in ensuring the quality of education and training, Thailand should consider several factors. Firstly, establishing a national entity dedicated to supporting adult learning providers is important. Such an entity could offer clear and consistent guidance on how to conduct self-assessment effectively in a standardised manner, fostering uniformity and rigour across providers. Secondly, developing a comprehensive and accessible set of quality indicators would be highly beneficial. These indicators should be sufficiently flexible to allow providers to adapt them to their specific contexts while maintaining alignment with national quality standards (OECD, 2021[52]; OECD, 2023[53]). For instance, Slovenia has cultivated a strong culture of self-assessments for quality assurance. The Slovenian Institute of Adult education plays a pivotal role by advising providers on how to evaluate their own quality and identify areas for improvement (see Box 3.1). To further incentivise quality improvement, the institute awards a logo to providers who demonstrate that they have conducted systematic self-assessments over the past three years and used the findings to enhance their performance.
In addition to internal quality assurance, Thailand faces challenges in implementing effective external quality assurance practices for adult learning. Current efforts, which primarily focus on conducting external audits (see Figure 3.7), remain limited in scope (OHEC, 2014[58]). While ONESQA oversees external quality assurance for vocational education and training (VET) institutions, its own mechanisms do not extend to continuing vocational education and training (CVET)5 for adults or other adult learning opportunities. Furthermore, external quality assurance processes do not currently include a broad range of adult learning providers beyond HEIs and VET institutes. These excluded providers include private companies, LAOs, CLCs, NFEs, and schools for the elderly, all of which play an important role in delivering diverse learning opportunities for adults in Thailand. Expanding the reach of external quality assurance to encompass these providers is essential to ensure comprehensive oversight and the consistent quality of adult learning across the country.
A common approach to external quality assurance in many OECD countries is the use of quality labels and certificates. Under this approach, external bodies – independent of the training provider, including both governmental or non-governmental organisations – conduct audits based on predefined quality standards. Providers that meet these standards are awarded a logo, emblem, or symbol as certification of their compliance (OECD, 2021[52]; OECD, 2023[53]; OECD, 2024[54]; Espinoza and Martinez-Yarza, 2023[61]). In Thailand, various industry bodies and professional associations in the country provide certification for VET programmes to ensure that they meet industry standards. However, the coverage of such certifications for CVET and adult learning is limited. Introducing quality labels or certificates specifically designed for adult learning providers could help address this gap. Such a measure would not only enhance the visibility and credibility of adult learning opportunities but also encourage providers to uphold and improve their quality standards.
It is important to ensure that the quality certification system for adult learning remains simple and user-friendly. While allowing multiple industry bodies and professional associations to issue quality certificates in Thailand can address the diverse needs of various sectors, this approach also presents challenges. Specifically, if different certification bodies implement their processes without adhering to a common set of minimum quality standards, the credibility and value of the quality labels or certificates awarded to adult learning providers could be compromised (OECD, 2021[60]). To address this concern, Thailand should consider introducing a unified, government-regulated quality label or certificate for adult learning providers. Such a system would be grounded in a standardised set of certification criteria and operationalised through clear and consistent quality guidelines. A national certification system would not only enhance the legitimacy of quality labels but also streamline the certification process for providers. A useful example can be found in Austria, where the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Research oversees the Ö-cert national certification system and quality seal for adult learning providers (see Box 3.1). The Ö-cert application process is straightforward, requiring compliance with five clearly defined basic certification criteria. The entire process, including submission of required documentation, takes less than two hours and is completed on line (OECD, 2021[52]; OECD, 2023[53]; OECD, 2024[54]). Adopting a similarly efficient and transparent model could provide Thailand with a practical framework for enhancing its quality assurance mechanisms.
Slovenia: Self-assessments guided by the Slovenian Institute of Adult Education
In Slovenia, where there is a strong culture of quality assurance, self-assessments are commonly used by adult learning providers. The Slovenian Institute of Adult Education launched the Offering Quality Education to Adults (OQEA) initiative in 1999 to advise providers how to self-assess their own quality and plan their own improvements. During the self-assessment process, the adult learning institution’s management and employees reflect on their mission, vision and values relating to the education of adults, and may choose from almost 100 quality indicators and criteria gathered by the Slovenian Institute of Adult Education. These indicators cover (1) input factors (educational programmes, promotion of adult education, staff, premises and equipment); (2) process factors (planning of education, implementation of education, development work in support of education, support for individuals in education); (3) output factors (results, effects); and (4) transversal factors (management and administration). Moreover, OQEA also provides a logo to adult education providers if they can prove that for the past three years, they have carried out self-assessment processes systematically and produced a written action plan to improve on the results. It is important to note that this logo is not an instrument for external quality assurance – as is the case with quality labels and certificates – but is rather aimed at rewarding adult learning providers who display strong initiative to systematically assess their own work and continuously improve their performance.
Austria: Ö-cert certification system
Austria provides quality certificates to adult learning providers through the Ö-Cert certification system, which reports to the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Research, the same ministry that ensures that all adult learning providers offer programmes that are aligned with the National Qualifications Framework. The certification system is recognised throughout Austria, unlike previous certification systems which were only regional. The Ö-Cert quality seal is an umbrella label for adult learning providers, is a nationwide quality trademark, and is regulated by law. To obtain the seal, adult learning providers must apply for it and fulfil minimum requirements. Eligible providers must have at least one adult learning programme offering in Austria that is regular, planned and communicated publicly (for transparency), and must have formally operated for at least three years. Learning providers are then asked to submit the appropriate paperwork on line, with the process estimated to take less than two hours. They must meet five basic certification requirements:
1. The provider must agree on the definitions of lifelong learning and adult education.
2. The provider’s main task should be adult education, with educational managers having corresponding qualifications and professional experience.
3. The adult education offers must be open to the public and not solely oriented towards leisure activities.
4. The provider has to agree on basic ethical principles (e.g. human rights) and democracy.
5. The provider must submit a Q-certificate according to the Ö-Cert list.
Once the application is received, it will be examined, and a final decision will be made during an accreditation group meeting held five to six times every year. The accreditation process is free, but if the provider’s application is successful, they must pay EUR 100 for the use of the Ö-Cert quality seal.
Source: OECD (2021[52]), Improving the Quality of Non-Formal Adult Learning: Learning from European Best Practices on Quality Assurance, https://doi.org/10.1787/f1b450e1-en; Ö-Cert (2011[62]), An overall framework of quality for adult education in Austria, https://oe-cert.at/meta/english-overview.php#.
Improving internal and external quality assurance mechanisms for formal and non-formal adult learning can help ensure that learners receive high-quality training, equipping them with in-demand skills that boost employability, access to better jobs, and overall productivity.
Thailand can undertake the following specific actions to improve quality assurance mechanisms for adult learning, especially non-formal and informal learning:
1.1. Expand internal and external quality assurance mechanisms to include adult learning providers currently excluded from existing regulations. Thailand should make a deliberate effort to co‑ordinate with other types of adult learning providers beyond HEIs and VET institutes to comply with quality assurance requirements. These include LAOs, CLCs, NFEs, schools for the elderly, and private companies. OHEC should work with these adult learning providers to set up internal quality assurance mechanisms, as well as extend to them the requirement to submit self-assessment reports and undergo audit every three years. Similarly, Thailand should also include these providers in their list of institutions that will undergo external quality assurance assessments every five years.
1.2. Strengthen the capacity of adult learning providers to conduct self-evaluations and make improvements based on results. Thailand should collaborate with adult learning providers to enable them to conduct self-assessments, including through the provision of clear, easy to understand guidelines. Such guidelines may explain why such internal quality assurance mechanisms are needed, what aspects of their functioning are being assessed (e.g. relevance, pedagogical practices, administration, graduate outcomes), how to conduct the self-assessment, how often, and by whom (e.g. administrators, teaching personnel, students). The guidelines should be easily accessible, and a dedicated support team from relevant government agencies must be available to help adult learning providers in more detail.
1.3. Introduce quality assurance labels for adult learning providers. ONESQA should build on its actual external quality assurance mechanisms and introduce a label or logo for adult learning providers who demonstrate exceptional performance based on site visits, evaluation reports, and monitoring data. Additional criteria may also be added, such as programmes’ alignment with the National Qualifications Framework (see Austria’s Ö-Cert seal in Box 3.1) Thailand should make sure that the ONESQA-offered label or logo is known among adult learning providers and prospective students as the official government-approved quality assurance label in Thailand in order to uphold its value as a quality assurance instrument.
Recommendation 2: Steering adult learning provision and choices towards areas of skills shortage
In addition to ensuring the quality of adult learning opportunities, it is equally important to ensure that they are relevant to current and future labour market needs. In a rapidly changing world, providing information on current and future skills trends can help training providers develop the right adult learning opportunities that could support national development, as well as help individuals make more informed training choices and enable the development of skills that are valued in the labour market. To this end, Thailand is taking steps to identify critical skills areas and expanding adult learning opportunities to foster innovation and national competitiveness. At the policy level, the Action Plan for the Production and the Development of Human Resources in Occupations that are Urgently Needed for Development was adopted to create a roadmap for producing manpower in strategic sectors, in line with the National Qualifications Framework (see Table 3.1) (Office of the Education Council, 2019[18]). Thailand also has a long history of promoting partnerships with industry to design and implement VET programmes for adults and ensure that they align with labour market needs.
Enhancing skills data collection to better align adult learning opportunities with labour market needs
To complement current efforts and further ensure the relevance of adult learning offers, there is room for Thailand to use skills assessment and anticipation (SAA) more systematically. SAA tools are used to generate robust, accurate and timely information about current and future skills needs of the labour market (i.e. skill demand) and the supply of skills available (Bakule et al., 2016[63]; OECD, 2016[64]; Wilson and Zukersteinova, 2011[65]). They involve the use of several methods, such as forecast-based projections and quantitative models; employer, employee, enterprise or vacancy surveys; qualitative methods (e.g. focus group discussions, scenario development), and sectoral/occupational/regional studies (see Table 3.3) (OECD, 2016[64]; ILO, 2017[66]).
Information on the use of SAA tools in Thailand is extremely limited, although employer-employee surveys are used by the Department of Skills Development under the Ministry of Labour to determine labour market needs. The Department works with sectoral bodies to conduct two types of surveys: (1) for trainees and workers, which determine what kinds of skills they are motivated to learn or what their needs are in terms of training; and (2) for enterprises, which determine what kinds of skills or qualifications are needed in the workplace. Following the implementation of these surveys, the Department of Skills Development uses the results to inform the content of its adult learning opportunities. As of 2024, the Department is transitioning towards digitalising this process by adopting online surveys for distribution to employers and employees.
Source: ILO (2017[66]), Skills Needs Anticipation: Systems and Approaches, www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/2223_en.pdf; OECD (2016[64]), Getting Skills Right: Assessing and Anticipating Changing Skill Needs, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264252073-en.
In addition to employer-employee surveys conducted by the Department of Skill Development, Thailand can access labour market information through the OECD Skills for Jobs Database, which analyses what skills are in demand in the Thai labour market. The database shows that the country has severe shortages of production and technology knowledge skills, more specifically transportation skills (0.36), building and construction skills (0.291), and engineering, mechanics and technology (0.282) (OECD, 2024[67]) (see Figure 3.8). Addressing these shortages will be critical if Thailand wants to achieve national development objectives as outlined in the 13th National Economic and Social Development Plan 2023-2027 (NESDC, 2023[49]). For instance, Thailand aims to transform the automobile industry into an electrical vehicle industry and to accelerate its electronics industry to become ASEAN’s centre for smart electronics and digital industries. To achieve this objective, Thailand would need to address the current shortages in production and technology knowledge skills.
Note: Positive values indicate skill shortages, while negative values indicate skills surpluses. The larger the absolute value, the larger the imbalance. The value of 1 represents the largest shortage, and -1 the largest surplus across OECD countries, skill categories and years.
Source: OECD (2024[68]), Skills for Jobs Database: Skills needs by country, www.oecdskillsforjobsdatabase.org/index.php#.
Generating timely labour market information through SAA exercises can help Thailand identify which skills it needs to further develop in its workforce. However, SAA exercises in the country are still fragmented and carried out sporadically (World Bank, 2021[69]). Thailand could further improve its SAA exercises. In particular, it would be important to more systematically carry out SAA exercises to obtain a more coherent and comprehensive overview of the skills needed across different sectors and occupations. In many OECD countries, SAA exercises focusing on short-term (i.e. 6 months to 2 years) and medium-term (i.e. 2 to 5 years) needs are generally carried out (or updated) on an annual basis. Longer-term SAA exercises, by contrast, are undertaken less frequently – for example, every four years in Finland with a 15-year outlook – although provisions are generally made for periodic updates to take into account new trends and developments (OECD, 2016[64]). Drawing on the results of such exercises, Thailand could tailor adult learning opportunities to better align with evolving labour market needs and ensure that individuals acquire the skills most in demand across the economy.
Disseminating skills data to learners and training providers
In addition to improving skills and labour market information, it is also equally important to disseminate this information and ensure its systematic and regular use by key actors, such as training providers and adult learners themselves. For SAA exercises to add value to the skills system, their findings must inform education and training offers and choices (OECD, 2016[64]). For example, in Japan, offers of vocational training programmes for workers who plan to change jobs or improve their skills are based on local labour market and industrial needs, which are determined by SAA exercises carried out by the public employment service and the regional branches of the Ministry of Labour, Health and Welfare (OECD, 2016[64]). In Thailand, some of the training opportunities offered by the Department of Skills Development already correspond with targeted higher-level skills outlined in the National Economic and Social Development Plan. For instance, in 2024, the department offered courses on the installation of intelligent electric vehicle power supply systems for buildings (Department of Skills Development, 2024[70]).
The results of SAA exercises are also typically disseminated to students, families and workers to inform them about the labour market prospects of different occupations. For example, in Finland, the web-based system ForeOccupation (available in Finnish at www.foreammatti.fi) provides workers and students with information on vacancies, the supply and demand for labour at the regional level, skills needed in the workplace, and the level of competition for jobs. The information on the website is based on data from public employment services, analysis of job announcements and forecasts (OECD, 2016[64]).
In Thailand, data from SAA exercises is often underutilised, failing to adequately inform education providers on which programmes to offer or guide adult learners on which courses to pursue (Vandeweyer et al., 2020[48]). Labour market information can be obtained from a wide variety of sources, including the Department of Employment’s open data portal, which offers detailed information from survey and administrative sources about the labour market; from the Department of Employment’s Smart Job Centre, which offers employment forecasts and wage information at the occupation level, as well as provide assistance for training for job-seekers; and from the Department of Skills Development’s online training portal (Pattaya Mail, 2015[71]; World Bank, 2021[69]). In addition, the private sector also uses job portals (e.g. JobsDB, JobThai) and e-learning sites (e.g. Coursera, edX) to offer career advice and job listings.
Although Thailand's numerous portals have the potential to offer a wide range of services to the public, experiences from other OECD countries show that having multiple sources of LMI can make it harder for prospective students to find reliable, timely data on labour market needs. Furthermore, the information is not always user friendly, and may lack standardised and consistent terminology. The generation of labour market insights may also lack methodological rigor and transparency (Labour Market Information Council, 2022[72]). These findings suggest the importance of establishing an online platform that centralises labour market data, strengthening the dissemination of skills information to Thai citizens, employers, education and training providers, and researchers (see Recommendation 8 in Chapter 4).
In addition to a centralised and accessible portal, one way in which Thailand could easily make labour market information available for prospective adult learners is to compile a list of critical skills and occupations that reflect changing skills needs and support the objectives of national development strategies. While there are several readily available lists that identify skills and occupations that are growing in demand in the country, many of these are produced by the private sector and are not officially endorsed by the government (British Council, 2023[73]; Manpower Group, 2019[74]). In many OECD countries and in some ASEAN Member States, governments identify and publish a list of critical skills and occupations to inform the public and relevant stakeholders about skills and occupations that are growing in demand. Malaysia’s Critical Occupations List (MyCOL) is published annually and draws on quantitative data, such as the labour force survey, administrative records, and qualitative data, including employer surveys and findings from stakeholder consultations, to identify strategically important and hard-to-fill occupations (see Box 3.2). These occupations are categorised based on three main criteria: skilled (i.e. requiring more than primary educational attainment based on the Malaysian Standard Classification of Occupations [MASCO] list), are in high demand (i.e. demand exceeds supply), and are strategically important (i.e. central to economic development objectives) (TalentCorp, 2023[75]). Similarly, in Singapore, SkillsFuture Singapore (SSG) produces a comprehensive report every year to explain changes in the Singaporean economy, highlight priority skills in three strategic areas that are central to the country’s national development plan, and provide guidance on how adults could plan their career mobility and access necessary training (see Box 3.2) (SkillsFuture Singapore, 2023[76]).
Providing incentives to steer the supply of and demand for adult learning opportunities
In addition to the generation and dissemination of skills and labour market information, it is equally important to encourage employers to offer adult learning opportunities that target critical skills and occupations, as well as incentivise adults to pursue training in these critical areas. Governments can utilise a wide variety of supply-side incentives to help employers offset the costs of training. For instance, subsidies, such as grants, can reduce upfront financial barriers and encourage greater employers investment in workforce training (OECD, 2017[77]; CEDEFOP, 2024[78]). For instance, in Australia, the government of Queensland has implemented variable subsidy rates for employer-provided training based on labour market information identifying critical skills areas (see Box 3.2) (OECD, 2017[77]). In Thailand, a diverse range of incentives is already available to employers (see Table 3.5 in Recommendation 4), although these are not structured as direct subsidies. For example, the Skills Development Promotion Act offers tax incentives to employers providing training to their employees. However, these tax incentives, as they are currently designed, do not target training in areas of skills shortages. Addressing this gap, the Thailand Plus Package represents a noteworthy initiative. Introduced as a fiscal measure, it promotes employment and workforce development in in-demand STEM sectors by offering tax incentives to businesses that hire employees in STEM-related areas and provide them with upskilling activities (OECD, 2024[59]).
On the demand side, various incentives can help encourage individuals to pursue training in areas of skills shortages. These measures may include student loans, scholarships, and grants provided to households, helping learners manage upfront costs, especially in priority fields of study (OECD, 2017[77]; CEDEFOP, 2024[78]). For instance, the Philippines offers scholarships to Filipino professionals employed in academic, research, or government institutions to encourage them to pursue master’s and doctorate degrees abroad in priority fields of study. Most of these fields are in strategic STEM areas, such as bioengineering, material sciences, and nuclear medicine. The scholarship covers enrolment fees, a monthly stipend for living expenses, healthcare benefits, visa support, and a roundtrip plane ticket (Department of Science and Technology, 2024[79]). Thai government representatives report that both the government and private sector offer scholarships and grants to encourage adult learners to pursue formal and non-formal training. However, there remains significant scope to better align these incentives with strategic fields of study, particularly those highlighted in the Thailand 4.0 strategy (Ministry of Industry, 2017[4]).
Australia: Incentives for employer-provided training
In the state of Queensland, subsidies are provided to encourage the provision of training opportunities in areas of skills shortage. To better promote critical skilling areas, the government varies subsidy rates for employer-provided training according to the strategic importance of the qualification. The funding priorities are determined based on national and state data and industry input, and are reviewed annually. “Priority One” qualifications concern occupations that were identified as critical priorities in Queensland, and the cost of training for apprentices and trainees in these areas is 100% subsidised. On the other hand, “Priority Two” and “Priority Three” qualifications are only partly subsidised and still require contributions from industry, employers, apprentices and trainees. “Priority Two” qualifications are not deemed critical in Queensland but are considered as high priorities, and are subsidised at 87.5%, while “Priority Three” qualifications are not deemed critical in Queensland but are considered as medium priorities, and are subsidised at 75%.
Malaysia: Critical Occupations List (MyCOL)
Since 2015, Malaysia published its Critical Occupations List (MyCOL) annually to identify critical and hard-to-fill occupations based on three main criteria: skilled (i.e. requiring more than primary educational attainment based on the Malaysian Standard Classification of Occupations [MASCO] list, see note below), sought-after (i.e. demand exceeds supply) and strategic (i.e. central to economic development objectives). Through the publication of the MyCOL, Malaysia aims to highlight key skills gaps and align workforce development policies to support the country’s economic growth. The list is derived from the Malaysia National Skills Registry (MyNSR), which is a platform established by TalentCorp to provide information on skills requirements for various occupations and sectors in the country. The list was generated through a rigorous process combines quantitative analysis and qualitative insights. Quantitative data, including Malaysia’s labour force survey and administrative data, is analysed to determine whether an occupation is in shortage, highly sought-after by employers, or strategically aligned with the country’s economic development plans. This quantitative analysis is complemented with qualitative evidence (e.g. through surveys, consultations) gathered from stakeholders such as employers and industry associations. The MyCOL for 2022/2023 lists a total of 37 occupations across three priority sectors: construction, manufacturing (food processing) and aerospace. Most of the occupations identified are at the managerial, professional and associate professional levels, while approximately 30% of the occupations are semi-skilled, such as craft and trades workers, plant and machine operators, and assemblers.
Singapore: “Skills Demand for the Future Economy” Annual Report
SkillsFuture Singapore (SSG) is the government agency that is responsible for promoting a culture of lifelong learning and strengthening the adult learning system in the country. Every year, SSG produces a report to explain how various global trends, such as digital technological progress, artificial intelligence, geopolitics, and climate change, are shaping the demand for jobs and skills. The aim of the report is to help Singaporeans inform their learning choices and make use of purposeful training decisions to improve their labour market outcomes. The report is divided into five chapters. The first chapter describes the results of analysing 11 years’ worth of job posting data and investigating the skills needed by the Singaporean economy over time in three job families: hotel and food & beverage managers, information technology infrastructure, and cybersecurity professionals and engineers. The second chapter presents trends in selected priority skills, forecasting the skills that may continue to grow in the near team. The third chapter examines six in-demand jobs within the three aforementioned job families, providing readers with a multi-step approach to move from their current positions towards these desired in-demand jobs. The fourth chapter provides readers with information on how to access available adult learning opportunities that are aligned to their personal interests and professional ambitions, while the fifth and last chapter provides detailed information on the methodology used to generate the report’s insights.
Note: MASCO occupational groups that are semi-skilled or skilled (i.e. requiring more than primary educational attainment) include MASCO 1: Managers; MASCO 2: Professionals; MASCO 3: Technical and Associate Professionals; MASCO 4: Clerical Support Workers; MASCO 5: Service and Sales Workers; MASCO 6: Skilled Agricultural, Forestry, Livestock and Fisheries Workers; MASCO 7: Craft and Related Trades Workers; and MASCO 8: Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers.
Source: OECD (2017[77]), Financial incentives for steering education and training, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264272415-en; SkillsFuture Singapore (2023[76]), Skills Demand for the Future Economy, www.skillsfuture.gov.sg/docs/default-source/skills-report-2023/sdfe-2023.pdf; TalentCorp (2023), Critical Occupations List (MyCOL) 2022/2023: Sectors Deep Dive for the Malaysia National Skills Registry (MyNSR), www.talentcorp.com.my/images/uploads/publication/3/Critical-Occupations-List-MyCOL-20222023-1695267153.pdf; TalentCorp (2024), What is MyNSR?, https://mynsr.talentcorp.com.my/about-mynsr/.
Steering adult learning provision and choices towards areas of skills shortage could help ensure that adult learners participate in training opportunities that are well aligned with the needs of Thailand’s labour market. Furthermore, it could also help ensure that adult learning opportunities can effectively contribute to the achievement of the country’s national development goals.
Thailand can undertake the following specific actions to steer adult learning provision and choices towards areas of skills shortage:
2.1 Use skills assessment and anticipation (SAA) tools more systematically to determine labour market needs. In addition to the employer and employee surveys conducted by the Department of Skills Development, Thailand should adopt additional SAA tools that are not yet utilised systematically. These tools could include quantitative models, qualitative methods, and sectoral, occupational, and regional studies. Employing a wide range of SAA tools would enable Thailand to generate more comprehensive, timely and representative data about the supply and demand of skills in its labour market. The systematic use of these SAA tools will require Thailand to invest in improvements in its skills information system (see Opportunity 4 in Chapter 5), as well as hire technical experts capable of managing the design, implementation, and analysis of SAA exercises.
2.2 Disseminate information about skills shortages by introducing a government-approved list of critical skills and occupations. Thailand could use results from SAA exercises to generate a list of skills and occupations that are critical to the country’s labour market. This would help to co‑ordinate training offers from various learning providers and facilitate the achievement of objectives in national development plans. The list could be made available to the public and to relevant stakeholders, including adult learning providers and employers by publishing it through a credible and easily accessible channel, such as the Ministry of Labour or the Ministry of Education’s official website.
2.3 Introduce financial incentives to encourage employers and adult learning providers to offer opportunities in high-demand areas, and support learners in making education and training choices aligned with labour market needs. To ensure that skills and labour market information derived from SAA exercises is effectively utilised, Thailand could introduce financial incentives, such as subsidies, to encourage employers to offer adult learning opportunities in relevant skilling areas. To enhance the strategic impact of these incentives, subsidy levels could be adjusted based on how critical and strategic the government deems the skills or occupations relative to labour market’s needs and national development objectives. In addition to enterprises already supported by the Thailand Plus Package, such incentives should also be extended to LAOs, CLCs and NFEs, as these organisations play an important role in delivering adult learning programmes through localised and community-based approaches. Simultaneously, financial incentives for individuals, such as scholarships or grants, may also encourage adult learners to pursue training in strategic fields of study.
Opportunity 2: Reducing barriers to participation in adult learning opportunities
Fostering greater participation in adult learning involves addressing the many barriers that Thai adult learners face. Barriers to participation may either be situational, such as needing to fulfil job and family responsibilities, or dispositional, such as thinking that one is too old to learn or being anxious to return to a traditional classroom setting (Falasca, 2011[80]). Overcoming these barriers through financial and non-financial measures is crucial to ensuring that adults can fully participate in learning activities.
Two key recommendations have been identified to help Thailand in reducing barriers to participation in adult learning: (1) addressing time-related barriers through flexible adult learning opportunities; and (2) increasing motivation to participate in adult learning through financial and non-financial incentives.
Recommendation 3: Addressing time-related barriers through flexible adult learning opportunities
In Thailand, 92% of adults responded that they do not wish to participate in adult learning, citing multiple barriers to participation in training (see Figure 3.9). The most commonly cited reason for not participating in adult learning opportunities is the lack of time, as reported by 44% of adults surveyed (OECD, 2020[35]). In 2022, Thai employees worked an average of 42 hours per week, and 17% of the employed population worked 49 or more hours per week in the same year (ILOSTAT, 2022[81]). Studies have suggested that Bangkok was the third-most overworked city in the world based various factors, including the share of the population working more than 48 hours a week and engaging in multiple jobs and the degree to which individuals are able to enjoy their environment after office hours (Bhandari, 2023[37]; Kisi, 2021[47]).
Recent studies also indicate that when Thai employees can easily access adult learning opportunities (e.g. free online courses) and are motivated to participate in order to perform better in their current jobs, the lack of time still constitutes a major barrier to participation (Bhandari, 2023[37]). Due to the labour-intensive nature of the Thai workforce, time and opportunity costs make it difficult for adults to take time off their jobs to participate in training, as it may be difficult for them to make up for foregone earnings.
In many countries, the adult learning systems continue to mimic the rigid structures, schedules and processes of initial education despite the fact that the priorities and responsibilities of adult learners are considerably different. For instance, many adult learning systems continue to require adults to participate in training at a particular time (e.g. during the working week) in a particular place (e.g. in a physical classroom). Many also require adult learners to follow course offerings at a predetermined pace, expecting them to complete the learning programme within a specific timeframe (OECD, 2023[82]; European Union, 2018[83]).
Source: National Statistics Office, Skills Development Survey; OECD (2020[35]), OECD Economic Surveys: Thailand 2020, https://doi.org/10.1787/ad2e50fa-en.
To overcome time-related barriers to participation in adult learning, Thailand needs to provide a range of course offerings that are more flexible across multiple dimensions, such as time, place, and mode (see Figure 3.10). It is important to offer more flexibility in terms of when and where adult learning opportunities take place, how long they last, and how much time learners need to dedicate to them. This recognises the constraints of adult learners who are working, who are carrying out family responsibilities outside of work, or who have other commitments and are trying to develop their skills at the same time (OECD, 2023[84]).
Source: Adapted from OECD (2023[82]), Flexible adult learning provision: What it is, why it matters, and how to make it work, www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/topics/policy-sub-issues/adult-learning/booklet-flexibility-2023.pdf/_jcr_content/renditions/original./booklet-flexibility-2023.pdf.
There are many ways by which flexible training opportunities can help adult learners fit their education and training around work and personal commitments. For instance, online learning, which is unconstrained by the need for physical proximity and can be accessed anywhere, reduces commuting times to a classroom and can help overcome time barriers. Online learning can offer a range of multimedia resources and tools (e.g. videos, interactive quizzes, discussion forums) that learners can choose from according to their preferred learning styles. Furthermore, through asynchronous forms of online learning, parents can participate in training during times that fit around family responsibilities, and workers can take courses that fit their work schedules (e.g. during the night or on weekends) (OECD, 2023[82]). Adult learning courses could also have flexible start and finish dates and allow learners to stop and restart learning as they see fit. Adult learning providers should recognise that there is no one-size-fits-all solution, and that a variety of options should be offered in order to encourage greater participation (OECD, 2023[82]).
In addition to online and asynchronous learning, offering adult learning opportunities during paid working hours (either fully or partially) can help improve the accessibility of training among employees. For instance, in countries with high levels of adult learning such as Norway and Switzerland, adult learning opportunities are work-related, take place during working hours, and are offered in classrooms provided for by the company (European Union, 2018[83]). Such examples of flexible adult learning options can help Thailand overcome several other barriers to training, such as the lack of comprehensive childcare services outside of working hours, as well as the lack of transportation.
The provision of flexible adult learning opportunities has already been identified as a priority in Thailand. The availability of different learning modalities, including in-person, online (e.g. through the Thai MOOC platform) and hybrid options, have helped accommodate adults’ various preferences and schedules and facilitate participation in training. Thailand has also introduced the Additional Programme initiative, which targets local government employees, including those working in LAOs, to provide them with learning opportunities on weekends, with the approval of OVEC. In addition, Milestone 12 of the 13th National Economic and Social Development Plan 2023-2027 aims to further improve rules and regulations to allow flexibility in the implementation of upskilling and reskilling opportunities, covering rising technologies and forms of work in the future (NESDC, 2023[49]).
Furthermore, Ministerial Regulation No. 5 B.E. 2541 (1998) issued under the Labour Protection Act B.E. 2541 (1998) aims to overcome time barriers to participation in training, indicating that employees are entitled to take time off from work (i.e. training leaves) for skills development. The regulation states that the employee may take up to 30 days of leave per year (Ministry of Labour, 1998[85]). Many companies offer training leaves as part of the benefits offered to their employees, and typical conditions include eligibility after six months of employment, an allocation of five days of paid training leave, and the requirement of approval by management prior to taking leave. However, data on the utilisation of training leaves remains limited in Thailand.
Nonetheless, it is clear that Thailand has already made significant progress in offering more flexible forms of adult learning with the launch of the Thailand Massive Open Online Courses (Thai MOOC) platform in 2016 (see Box 3.3) (Meinel et al., 2023[86]). However, while the platform has a promising enrolment of 1.4 million learners, it is unclear how many of these learners are adults. These numbers also represent only a small share of Thailand’s total adult population (49.4 million people aged 15 to 64 years old) (World Bank, 2023[87]), suggesting that efforts are needed to raise more awareness about the flexibility of course offerings on the platform among the general population. Learning through the platform might also be challenging for Thais who have limited access to the Internet, such as those who live in remote rural areas (see Recommendation 6), and who have low levels of digital skills. Studies have shown that many adults in the country still struggle to perform simple tasks, such as using a pointing device or keyboard, or using online information to solve a problem (see Figure 3.2) (World Bank, 2024[41]). This highlights the need to improve the level of digital literacy among Thai adults, especially those from disadvantaged groups (including older learners, as identified as a priority by stakeholders), in order to ensure that they are able to learn effectively through the Thai MOOC platform.
In addition to Thai MOOC, the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research, and Innovation (MHESI) has developed the National Credit Bank System (NCBS) to encourage wider participation in adult learning opportunities among Thai adults. Through the initiative, learners can transform previous courses and subjects, as well as work experience, into credits that are stored in the NCBS. With a sufficient number of credits, learners can apply for a degree certificate from one of Thailand’s higher educational institutions (Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, 2022[88]; Bangkok Post, 2022[89]).
Thailand could build on its existing system, such as the NCBS, by introducing a time savings account to reduce time-related barriers to training and promote participation according to individuals’ preferences and convenience. This scheme would allow individuals to accumulate resources over time – such as time, often linked to overtime hours – for the purpose of training. Unused resources would remain the property of the individual and could be used for a wide variety of purposes, including education and training, but also remuneration or retirement (OECD, 2019[90]; OECD, 2020[91]). Although such schemes are rare, relevant examples can be found, notably in France. The Compte épargne-temps (Time-Saving Account) allows employees to accumulate time credits over a number of years and benefit from remuneration or additional time off, in return for leave days that are not taken (see Box 3.3) (OECD, 2017[77]; Ministry of Economy, 2024[92]).
Thailand: Thai MOOC platform
In 2016, the Thailand Massive Open Online Courses (Thai MOOC) platform was developed with the support of the Thai government to provide an open access learning system and promote lifelong learning. The platform is run by educational institutions and private educational providers both in Thailand and abroad, offering more than 500 courses on various skills and topics. Courses offered on the platform are often cheap or offered for free, and learners participate in them whenever and wherever they wish to. Many Thai MOOC course offerings are short – sometimes as short as five hours – and offer certificates upon completion. Currently, there are more than 1.4 million users of the Thai MOOC platform, with more than 1.3 million of them completing courses and receiving certificates.
France: Compte épargne-temps (Time-Saving Account)
France uses time accounts to incentivise training, particularly through the Compte épargne-temps (Time-Saving Account), which was introduced in 1994 to allow employees to accumulate time credits over a number of years and subsequently use these credits for a number of purposes, including to acquire training leaves, retire earlier, or take up part-time work. When employees do not use up their vacation or rest days, they can be accumulated and transformed into additional paid leave days or remuneration.
At present, time is also a resource that could be accumulated in France’s Compte personnel de formation (Individual Training Account). Under this scheme, the account of each full-time worker is credited with 24 hours each year during the first five years, and with 12 hours per year for the subsequent three years. The account could accumulate a maximum of 150 training hours in total. Part-time workers accumulate credits in proportion to the number of hours they worked. Additionally, recent amendments to France’s Labour Law have extended the use of the time accounts to the self-employed and all youth aged sixteen and over, as well as credited workers without qualifications up to 48 training hours per year (in comparison to 24 hours for other workers).
The training hours stored in the account are preserved in the case of job loss and are transferrable between employers. The training hours can be used to take up a list of training courses that are selected by the Regional Councils, social partners, and professional associations, which often reflect the forecasted needs of the labour market. Individuals may take the training outside of or during working hours, with the latter requiring permission from the employer. The training costs are covered either by France’s collective training fund, or by the employer if it spends less than 0.2% of its wage bill on the Individual Training Accounts of its employees.
Source: DVV International & Chulalongkorn University (2019[22]), The Role of Adult Learning and Education in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Vietnam and Thailand – Country Studies, www.dvv-international.la/fileadmin/files/south-and-southeast-asia/documents/Final_Version_ALE_within_LLL_Southeast_Asia.pdf; Ministry of Economy, Finance and Industrial and Digital Sovereignty (2024[93]), Le compte épargne-temps : comment le mettre en place dans votre entreprise ? www.economie.gouv.fr/entreprises/compte-epargne-temps-cet-employeur; OECD (2017[77]), Financial Incentives for Steering Education and Training, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264272415-en; Thai MOOC (2024), Homepage, https://thaimooc.ac.th/; Meinel et al. (2023[86]), Thai MOOC Academy: Extending the Platform Towards a Sandbox for the National Credit Bank System in Thailand, https://publishup.uni-potsdam.de/opus4-ubp/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/62421/file/emoocs2023_online_s163-169.pdf.
Addressing time-related barriers through flexible adult learning opportunities is especially important in Thailand, where adults are some of the most overworked in the world and have little time for learning activities. Offering flexible adult learning opportunities in terms of place, time and modality can help adults to balance training with work and personal commitments.
Thailand can undertake the following specific actions to address time-related barriers through flexible adult learning opportunities:
3.1 Raise awareness about existing flexible adult learning opportunities, including digital formats, to increase their take-up. Thailand could more actively promote participation in flexible, short-term adult learning opportunities that are offered through existing initiatives, such as the Thai MOOC platform. This could be done through collaborating with employers and other relevant stakeholders to disseminate information about the platform, or to conduct information campaigns that could raise awareness among the general public. Such awareness raising initiatives must take place along with broader efforts to expand access to the Thai MOOC platform by improving Internet connectivity and improving the level of digital literacy among Thai adults, especially those from disadvantaged groups (see Recommendation 6).
3.2 Introduce time accounts or consider incorporating them into existing learning platforms such as the NCBS. Thailand could enable employees to accumulate training hours over time and store them into a time saving account, either as a standalone initiative or integrated into existing systems such as the NCBS. This would be a strategic and relevant option to build time credits for adult learning, given that Thai workers spend a greater number of hours working in comparison to the global average. Particular attention must be paid to disadvantaged workers, such as workers with low levels of skills and workers in the informal economy, such as by entitling them to more training hours that can be credited into the time account.
3.3 Promote the uptake of existing training leave policies and improve their effectiveness. Thailand should work with enterprises to improve the current level of take-up of the training leave policy by evaluating its effectiveness and identifying areas for improvement. Enterprises may be surveyed to determine what share of their employees are aware of the training leave and use it, the average duration of the training leave, and the employment outcomes (e.g. was able to use new knowledge and skills in the workplace, received a promotion) of those who have participated in training. Based on the results, Thailand should then work with enterprises and their employees to address policy gaps, raise awareness about the policy changes, and encourage uptake of the training leave.
Recommendation 4: Increasing motivation to participate in adult learning through financial and non-financial incentives
In addition to lack of time, Thais face a wide variety of other barriers to participation in adult learning. These include age-related misconceptions, such as the perception that they are either too old to learn (14% of surveyed adults) or that they are too young, or that further learning is unnecessary because they have already completed their studies (7%) (see Figure 3.9 above) (OECD, 2020[35]). Furthermore, many adults are unaware of the need to develop their skills further (Vandeweyer et al., 2020[48]). Addressing these attitudinal barriers will be important to encourage greater participation in adult learning and foster a culture of lifelong learning. By increasing motivation and fostering a learning-oriented mindset at all stages of life, Thailand can better respond to its socio-demographic challenges and leverage the potential of its aging population.
Adults are more likely to feel motivated to participate in learning activities if they are aware of the benefits of lifelong learning and believe that participation in them will lead to desired outcomes (OECD, 2023[84]). Adults are motivated to participate in learning opportunities by a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. (see Table 3.4). Intrinsic motivation drives individuals to learn because they find it psychologically rewarding, while extrinsic motivation drives individuals to learn as they expect an external benefit or reward (e.g. money) to come out of it (Hughes et al., 2019[94]).
Source: Hughes et al., (2019[94])What Motivates Adults to Learn? A rapid evidence review of what drives learning new skills in the workplace, https://media.nesta.org.uk/documents/Digital_Frontrunners_Motivation_to_Learn_report_final_published.pdf.
Awareness-raising initiatives are one of the most important methods for enhancing intrinsic motivation to learn. Evidence shows that providing guidance and informing adults about the benefits of education and training can be more effective at shaping individuals’ attitudes to learning than direct financial incentives (European Commission, 2015[95]). In Thailand, awareness raising initiatives have been conducted in the past to raise awareness about various topics, such as available adult learning programmes, as well the benefits of participating in adult learning for individuals and employers (including incentives offered through the Skill Development Promotion Act B.E. 2545). These awareness raising initiatives were conducted through various channels, such as on websites, in partnership with local organisations, through social media, during community events, or through the distribution of brochures. However, there have been limitations in funding and resources, which have impacted the scale and effectiveness of awareness raising campaigns.
In addition to these individual awareness raising initiatives, Thailand could benefit from launching a large-scale flagship communications campaign that provides adult learning with a distinct, recognisable, and positive profile in society. For instance, in Singapore, SkillsFuture is a national movement that promotes lifelong learning for all, and is the go-to portal to all information related to adult learning, including available learning opportunities (SkillsFuture Singapore, 2024[96]). In the United Kingdom, an awareness raising campaign was also designed and implemented by the Department of Education to tap into the intrinsic motivation of adults and communicate that every individual has untapped potential, and that skills development is key to unlocking it (see Box 3.4). The Department of Education partnered with a private communications and advertising company, which provided expertise on how to make the campaign coherent and more innovative (OECD, 2024[97]).
Similarly, Thailand could benefit from conducting a nation-wide public awareness campaign that promotes participation in adult learning by combatting attitudinal barriers, such as the belief that adults are too old to participate in educational offers (OECD, 2020[35]). Promoting a lifelong approach to learning and targeting elderly learners for active ageing is especially crucial in Thailand, where the population is ageing rapidly (UNFPA, 2021[98]). To this, end stakeholders suggested leveraging various communication channels, such as TV programmes and social media, given that local learning centres and schools for the elderly are not available everywhere. Using such channels to convey the importance of developing key skills, such as digital skills, was also cited as an important priority by stakeholders. Such a campaign should be customised to reflect regional or local labour market conditions and designed with local stakeholders, as this has been shown to more effectively connect with audiences, especially disadvantaged groups (OECD, 2019[1]; OECD, 2021[99]).
In addition to intrinsic motivation, it would be important for Thailand to also tap into the extrinsic motivation of individuals by using incentives to encourage participation in adult learning opportunities. A primary reason why adults invest time and resources in education and training is that they expect higher returns in the future. Providing financial and non-financial incentives that reduce costs or increase the rewards to training could thus help motivate more adults to participate in learning (OECD, 2017[77]; OECD, 2023[84]). In many OECD countries, such incentives come in various forms for employers, individuals, or both (see Table 3.5). For instance, in Austria, adults are able to deduct costs related to training from the base of their individual income tax (see Box 3.4) (CEDEFOP, 2024[100])
Note: Thailand’s National Credit Bank System allows individuals to save up course credits (not money) as they participate in learning programmes. The credits could be transformed into qualifications (e.g. degree certificate) from one of Thailand’s higher education institutions.
Source: OECD Skills Strategy Thailand policy questionnaire; OECD (2020[91]), OECD Skills Strategy Northern Ireland (United Kingdom): Assessment and Recommendations, https://doi.org/10.1787/1857c8af-en; OECD (2019[90]), Individual Learning Schemes, https://doi.org/10.1787/203b21a8-en; OECD (2017[77]), Financial Incentives for Steering Education and Training, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264272415-en; OECD (2023[101]), OECD Skills Strategy Southeast Asia, https://doi.org/10.1787/923bfd03-en; Government of Argentina (2017[102]), Licencias APN, www.argentina.gob.ar/empleadopublico/licencias; Lovdata (2016[103]), Forskrift om plikt til å stille krav om bruk av lærlinger i offentlige kontrakter, https://lovdata.no/dokument/LTI/forskrift/2016-12-17-1708; Government of the UK (2016[104]), Advanced Learner Loan, www.gov.uk/advanced-learner-loan.
In Thailand, some of these incentives are already available. Through the Skills Development Promotion Act B.E. 2545 (A.D. 2002) and its Amendment (No. 2), numerous incentives were introduced in the country, such as exemptions for employers from corporate income tax amounting up to 100% of training expenses (pursuant to the Royal Decree issued under the Revenue Code (No. 437). In addition, the establishment of the Skills Development Fund has allowed for the provision of loans to employers, employees or training providers, who must repay the loan within 12 months after completion of training (so long as the training lasts at least 30 days), at an interest rate of 1% (Department of Skills Development, 2002[13]). In three provinces in the eastern region, the Thai government is working with colleges to provide grants for employees to participate in training, while the Thailand Professional Qualification Institute reportedly offers e-Coupons to help Thai agencies cover the costs of training, although the ceiling is limited at THB 2 000 (55 EUR).
Despite these initiatives, current financial incentives in Thailand only target the supply side (e.g. tax exemptions for employers through Skills Development Promotion Act B.E. 2545). Incentives aimed at stimulating demand for adult learning among individuals do not exist yet and have yet to be introduced. To address this gap, Thailand could consider introducing tax incentives for individuals to encourage them to participate in adult learning and help ensure that their learning is rewarded in practice (OECD, 2023[84]). Introducing such a tax incentive targeted at individuals could be fairly straightforward to implement, given that Thailand’s existing tax system already allows for personal income tax deductions for individuals who make education-related expenses, such as donations in support of education (e.g. buildings, computers, books, teachers) under projects approved by the Ministry of Education, as well as donations to the Science and Technology Development Fund, the Science and Research Innovation Fund, and the Equitable Education Fund (PwC, 2024[105]). Thailand could thus consider adding training costs shouldered by individuals to the list of expenses that are eligible for personal income tax deductions.
Tax incentives can be more advantageous relative to other incentives such as subsidies for a number of reasons. First, unlike grants and scholarships, tax incentives do not require the individual to file an application in order to benefit. Second, tax-based incentives are administered through the annual tax return process and are therefore more accessible to the general public, as well as entail lower administrative costs as they build on existing tax infrastructure (OECD, 2017[77]). By integrating financial incentives into the annual tax return process, Thailand could make them more accessible to the working population.
Another incentive that may be useful to introduce in Thailand is payback clauses. Government representatives have expressed concerns that public investments in subsidies for training in enterprises may not always pay off for firms, as employees may leave their jobs upon finishing training, leaving limited time for Thai enterprises to reap the benefits of adult learning. Through payback clauses, Thai employees would be bounded to employers who have invested in their training (and thus benefited from tax exemptions) for a certain amount of time after concluding training. In this way, these schemes incentives employer to invest in training their workers. As a legal instrument, payback clauses may be added to any employment contract that respects labour laws and will require employees to pay for training costs (or at least a part of it) if the agreed-upon retention period is not respected (CEDEFOP, 2022[106]).
However, one limitation of such incentives is that they may not apply to all sectors in Thailand, given that these would mostly likely cover only adults working in the formal economy and leave out a substantial share of adults found in Thailand’s informal workforce. More specifically, tax incentives would cover formal workers who declare their income for tax purposes, while payback clauses would only apply to workers in firms that invest in their employees’ training.
Stakeholders in Thailand have expressed interest in complementing the existing incentives with both targeted initiatives for disadvantaged groups (see Recommendation 5) and more general incentives such as bottom-up learning models. The latter includes individual learning schemes, which not only could be accessed by the wider public – including workers in Thailand’s widespread informal economy – but could also foster a greater sense of responsibility among all adults to participate in training on their own. These individual learning schemes can take various forms, including training vouchers, which provide individuals with direct subsidies to pay for training; individual savings accounts, which are actual financial accounts where individuals accumulate funds over time for education and training; and individual learning accounts, which are virtual accounts that track training entitlements or rights accrued over time (OECD, 2019[90]). In Singapore, the SkillsFuture Credit is an individual learning scheme that facilitates participation in adult learning by offering SGD 500 worth of credits to all Singaporeans aged 25 years old and above. The credit is to be used for a wide range of eligible courses supported by the Ministry of Education and other public agencies. The scheme also provides top-ups of SGD 4 000 at age 40 to encourage mid-career adults to participate in upskilling and reskilling (see Box 3.4).
United Kingdom: “It All Starts with Skills” Campaign
To raise awareness about the Department of Education’s new skills initiatives, the “It All Starts with Skills” campaign was launched. The primary target groups included adults aged 24 to 59 who want to change their careers, upskill in their current role, or develop new skills that are becoming more important in the labour market; as well as employers who want to upskill their workers and young people aged 14 to 19 years who want to make informed choices about their careers. The campaign builds on the belief that every individual possesses untapped potential, and that skills are key to unlocking it, hence the key message “It All Starts with Skills”. The campaign was launched with a 1-minute video that was aired on national TV, video on demand, and in cinemas across England. In addition, other communication channels were also used, such as radio, outdoor billboards, and social media. The official accounts of the Department of Education (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube) and the National Careers Service (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, LinkedIn) were used, encouraging the public to use hashtags such as #SkillsForLife and #ItAllStartsWithSkills. The Department of Education partnered with a private company specialising in communications and advertising to develop a coherent identity for the campaign, as well as create its campaign materials.
Austria: Tax deductions for adult learning
Once each year, adults in Austria can deduct from the base of their individual tax income costs spent on continuing vocational education and training acquired during their current occupation or a future occupation. Eligible costs include tuition fees, costs for teaching materials, travel and accommodation costs, as well as the costs of a computer. Eligible costs are multiplied by the marginal tax rate (between 20% and 55%) and there is no ceiling introduced. Individuals with no taxable income (i.e. an annual gross salary below EUR 11 000 as of 2024) cannot profit from the scheme. While state co-funding through tax deductions implies foregone revenues, the scheme is expected to help incentivise learning among individuals and sustain or increase their future income, implying higher tax revenues later on. While no comprehensive statistical data is available, the number of beneficiaries and the volumes of tax refunds are substantial, amounting to more than EUR 50 000 000 in 2024.
Singapore: SkillsFuture Credit
The SkillsFuture Credit scheme was introduced in 2015 to incentivise participation in lifelong learning among the general public, including employees, self-employed workers, jobseekers and inactive individuals. The scheme provides all Singaporeans aged 25 years and above with an opening credit of SGD 500, which may be used to improve existing skills or reskill into new areas outside of individuals’ current field through a wide range of eligible courses that are available on MySkillsFuture, Singapore’s one-stop online portal on lifelong learning, as well as courses offered by institutions funded by the Ministry of Education and supported by public agencies. At age 40, Singaporeans enter the Mid-Career Tier of the scheme and receive a new top-up of SGD 4 000 that does not expire, and which can be used to access about 7 000 selected courses for upskilling and reskilling. The Mid-Career Tier may lead to full qualifications or be used for shorter modules that may be stacked into a full qualification. It may also be used for workplace learning opportunities for adults (e.g. SkillsFuture Career Transition Programme), as well as courses that allow individuals to fulfil training requirements in Progressive Wage Model (PWM) sectors.
Source: CEDEFOP (2024[100]), Tax incentive for individuals: Austria, www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/financing-adult-learning-db/instrument-types/tax-incentive-individuals; SkillsFuture Singapore (2024[107]), SkillsFuture Credit, www.skillsfuture.gov.sg/initiatives/mid-career/credit; UK Government Department for Education (2023) (2023[108]), Skills for Life campaign, www.gov.uk/government/publications/it-all-starts-with-skills-campaign-introduction-and-background/it-all-starts-with-skills-campaign-introduction-and-background; OECD (2019[90]), Individual Learning Schemes https://doi.org/10.1787/203b21a8-en.
Increasing motivation to participate in adult learning through financial and non-financial incentives can help overcome the attitudinal barriers, such as the belief that one is too old to learn or the lack of awareness about the need for further skill development. Boosting motivation to learn and cultivating a learning-oriented mindset can help foster a culture of lifelong learning, enabling Thailand to make better use of its people, including the talents of its rapidly aging population.
Thailand can undertake the following specific actions to increase motivation to participate in adult learning opportunities through financial and non-financial incentives:
4.1 Conduct a nation-wide campaign to raise awareness about the importance of a lifelong approach to learning. Thailand should launch a nation-wide campaign to raise awareness about the available learning opportunities in the country, the benefits of participating in them during adulthood and the elderly years, and available government support to overcome time and cost barriers. The campaign should aim to be cost-effective by using communication channels that are widely used in Thailand (e.g. social media, television). It is important to tailor key messages to the Thai context and reflect local labour market conditions in order to more effectively connect with the public, especially disadvantaged groups and elderly learners. To ensure maximum reach, especially at the local level and among disadvantaged groups, the campaign can be implemented in partnership with structures that work directly with them, such as LAOs, CLCs, NFEs, and schools for the elderly.
4.2 Introduce a financial incentive, such as personal income tax deductions, to motivate individuals to pursue training. Thailand should build on its existing tax infrastructure to introduce personal income tax deductions for training costs, including tuition fees, costs for training materials, and travel and accommodation. Guidance on how to claim such personal income tax deductions should also be provided once the incentive is introduced in order to ensure awareness and effective take-up among taxpayers. This could be done in partnership with enterprises, who may raise awareness directly among their employees.
4.3 Introduce payback clauses to ensure that investments in training by enterprises and the government can lead to positive returns. Thailand could implement a payback clause policy through legislation, either by introducing a new law or amending the Labour Code. This would provide a legal framework for employers and employees to establish contractual agreements regarding training investments, as well as lay out key principles to guide the use of payback clauses and ensure they are applied fairly and effectively. These principles may include the minimum amount of training costs (or the duration of training) eligible for a refund from the employer in case of termination, the maximum length of the retention period, types of employees covered, and the eligible reasons for which employers can request for a refund of their expenditure (e.g. when employees leave voluntarily or are dismissed for misbehaviour).
4.4 Explore the introduction of individual learning schemes (e.g. training vouchers, learning accounts) to encourage adults to take greater responsibility for their lifelong learning. Thailand could explore the introduction of initiatives such as personal learning accounts in order to encourage individuals to participate in training regardless of their employment status. The learning account may help overcome time barriers if eligible courses are asynchronous and offered on line (see Recommendation 3), and may also address cost barriers through the provision of learning credits (see Singapore example in Box 3.4).
Opportunity 3: Increasing participation in adult learning among disadvantaged groups
It is important to provide additional and targeted support to disadvantaged groups in Thailand in order to ensure that they are able to fully participate in adult learning opportunities and reap the benefits of learning. For disadvantaged groups, such as workers in the informal economy, low-skilled and low-income workers, adults from cultural minorities, and adults with disabilities, among others, adult learning can help compensate for a lack of education in earlier life, enable the acquisition of skills needed in a rapidly changing world of work, and promote better labour market outcomes (The European Association for the Education of Adults, 2019[109]; OECD, 2022[110]).
Two key recommendations have been identified to support Thailand in increasing participation in adult learning among disadvantaged groups: (1) improving access to adult learning opportunities among informal workers; and (2) expanding access to adult learning among disadvantaged groups through online learning and community-based approaches.
Recommendation 5: Improving access to adult learning opportunities among informal workers
Lack of access to adult learning is particularly a challenge for adults in Thailand’s widespread informal sector, where there are limited opportunities to upgrade their skills through employer-provided training and where formal skills recognition remains challenging. It is estimated that informal employment constitutes 65% of all employment in Thailand (ILO, 2022[11]), which indicates that a significant proportion of the country’s workforce lacks access to high quality adult learning opportunities, especially since private companies play a significant role in the provision of training in Thailand (World Bank, 2023[9]). This limits their ability to participate in training opportunities that can boost their employability and career development as well as reap economic returns (e.g. higher wages) (ILO, 2023[111]); (OECD, 2024[112]).
Participation in adult learning among informal workers can provide them with the skills needed to transition towards formal employment and obtain more stable and better-remunerated jobs. Informal on-the-job learning is the most common route for skills acquisition among informal workers, where they learn by doing or through observations, or from family, friends or community members (ILO, 2023[111]). However, many informal workers perform low-skilled jobs that do not require them to develop more advanced skills, and they are much less likely to participate in informal on-the-job opportunities that are of high quality, in comparison to formal workers (OECD, 2024[112]). In Thailand, additional barriers such as low income, lack of transportation, lack of childcare services, and limited access to technology impact the participation of adult learning especially among disadvantaged groups.
Workers in the informal economy, especially those with lower levels of skills, can benefit the most from the targeted provision of incentives to facilitate their participation in adult learning opportunities. In Thailand, the Skills Development Fund is one mechanism by which training for workers in the informal economy, including small and micro-enterprises, could be financed. Employers that do not provide yearly training opportunities to at least 50% of their employees, as required by the Skill Standard Promotion Act of 2002, are subject to a national levy amounting to about USD 40 per year per employee in 2020. However, there is no systematic information on how many workers in the informal economy are supported by the Skills Development Fund. Furthermore, while the fund’s governance body is represented by various types of stakeholders, such as government, formal sector employers, and workers’ organisations, it does not include representation from workers in the informal economy (UNESCO, 2022[113]).
Financial incentives, such as subsidies, allowances or training vouchers, could be effective in helping promote participation in adult learning opportunities (ILO, 2023[111]). These financial incentives, or a combination of them, could most likely be the most effective policy measures, given that many workers in the informal economy are reluctant to participate in adult learning because they are unable to contribute to training costs, cannot afford to forego even one day’s earnings, or are uncertain of the returns they may get from participation (ILO, 2023[111]; OECD, 2019[114]; OECD, 2024[112]).
Thailand should consider introducing a subsidy scheme specifically targeted at workers in the country’s extensive informal economy. Designing such a scheme requires careful attention to balancing simplicity and targeting, as these factors significantly impact the policy's feasibility and effectiveness. Simple, universal and less targeted schemes minimise administration costs and are easier to implement. However, they risk higher deadweight loss, as they often disproportionately benefit high-skilled individuals, resulting in a significant portion of subsidies being allocated to individuals who are likely to engage in learning even without financial support (Oosterbeek, 2013[115]).
Conversely, more targeted schemes can reduce deadweight loss by directing support to those most in need, such as low-skilled or vulnerable workers (OECD, 2017[77]). However, greater targeting typically involves increased administrative complexity and may lower take-up rates due to challenges in identifying and reaching eligible beneficiaries. To address these issues, many subsidy programmes focus on specific groups to maximise impact while managing costs. For example, Malaysia’s Bina Krejaya Programme targets informal workers, including gig workers and the self-employed, providing both training subsidies and a training allowances to encourage participation (see Box 3.5) (Perkeso, 2023[116]). Striking a balance between simplicity and targeting is inherently challenging, as strengthening one aspect often comes at the expense of the other. Thoughtful policy design, tailored to the administrative capacity of the government and the needs of Thailand’s informal workers, will be key to developing a successful subsidy scheme.
In Thailand, workers in several sectors could benefit from targeted subsidies (Panel A of Figure 3.11). While informality can be found in many sectors in Thailand, the sectors wherein informal workers are found most commonly are in agriculture and fisheries (52.7%), as well as services and shop sales (23.1%) (NSO, 2023[117]). Providing training subsidies for informal workers in these sectors could be strategic, as it could promote upskilling in priority areas identified in Thailand’s 13th National Economic and Social Development Plan (NESDC, 2023[49]).
Source: NSO (2023[117]), The Informal Employment Survey 2023, www.nso.go.th/nsoweb/storage/survey_detail/2023/20231218155504_43190.pdf.
Additionally, informal workers in Thailand are more likely to have lower levels of education (Panel B of Figure 3.11). In 2023, 29% of informal workers had only finished primary school, while 21% did not complete primary school. There are also fewer informal workers who had finished lower secondary (18%) and upper secondary (18%) schooling, and even fewer who finished higher education (12%) (NSO, 2023[117]). In Malaysia’s Bina Krejaya Programme for the Informal Sector, educational attainment is part of the eligibility criteria, targeting workers in the informal economy who have attained only a secondary education certificate at most (see Box 3.5) (Perkeso, 2023[116]).
Such targeted subsidy schemes are best combined with other interventions, such as information, advice and guidance, in order to maximise effectiveness (OECD, 2017[77]). Despite the availability of training opportunities, many informal workers do not participate because they are simply not aware of them. Many informal workers are also not fully aware of the need to participate in training in the context of rapidly changing labour markets and the challenges that come with not having relevant skills (OECD, 2024[112]). It is thus crucial for Thailand to raise awareness among informal workers about how jobs are changing a result of various megatrends, why they should participate in training, and what tailored opportunities are available to them.
One strategy to raise awareness among informal workers is to work with industry associations or civil society organisations, as they often have access to the areas (e.g. neighborhoods, villages) where informal workers live and work. Such partners can help promote a greater awareness of the benefits of training, help define their training needs, and deliver training programmes, among many other activities (ILO, 2001[118]; World Bank, 2013[119]). For example, in Thailand, the Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA), a not-for-profit tourism industry association, implemented the Informal Workers Programme, which reached out to informal workers to provide training about new tourism practices in a post-COVID world and raise awareness about the benefits of upskilling and reskilling (see Box 3.5) (Pacifc Asia Travel Association, 2023[120]).
Malaysia: Bina Kerjaya Programme for the Informal Sector
The Bina Kerjaya Programme for the Informal Sector is an initiative of the federal government that aims to equip informal workers with the skills they need to secure formal employment. The programme targets informal workers, specifically gig workers and self-employed individuals, rural farmers and fishermen, and small roadside vendors, aged between 16 and 40 years old and whose highest qualification is an Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) certificate, which is obtained after the 11th grade (i.e. secondary education). Priority is provided to applicants who are interested in transitioning to the formal sector, and profiling exercises are conducted to help them identify suitable training programmes. The programme offers informal workers recognition of prior experiential learning (RPEL), micro-credentials, and subsidised professional and competency training programmes that are accredited by public and private institutions of higher learning and professional bodies. Under the programme, informal workers receive subsidised training, amounting to a maximum of RM 2 500 for RPEL and competency opportunities (EUR 493), and RM 4 000 for professional and micro-credential programmes (EUR 804). Additionally, learners will receive a monthly training allowance of RM 300 (EUR 61) per month for up to three months.
Thailand: Training support and awareness raising for informal workers through industry associations
The Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) is a not-for-profit association based in Thailand that works on responsible travel and tourism within the Asia Pacific Region. In 2021, the association implemented the Informal Workers Programme in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, supporting informal workers, some of the most important stakeholders in the tourism industry. Many of them work as activity providers, artists, artisans, drivers, freelance tour guides, souvenir sellers, and street food sellers, supporting the backbone of the Thai tourism industry. Many of these informal workers are also women, youth and the elderly. As 94% of informal workers in Thailand’s tourism industry were severely impacted by the pandemic, PATA and the Roundtable Human Rights in Tourism launched the Informal Workers Programme to train informal workers in post-COVID‑19 tourism practices. Aiming to reach as many communities as possible, PATA hired unemployed freelance tour guides and under-employed tourism professionals to work with PATA staff and partner organisations to reach out to fellow informal workers in the streets and markets of Bangkok, deliver community-based training, and raise awareness about new tourism needs after the pandemic, the importance of social security benefits, and the registration process for Thailand’s Safety and Health Administration. As many as 500 informal workers in 15 communities were supported through the programme.
Source: Pacifc Asia Travel Association (2023[120]), Informal Workers Programme, https://src.pata.org/informal-workers/; Perkeso (2023[116]), Bina Kerjaya Programme for the Informal Sector Under Budget 2023 (Trainees), www.perkeso.gov.my/images/belanjawan2023/binakerjaya/210623_FAQ_Bina_Kerjaya_-__Trainees_Employment_Transition_Program_for_Self_Employed__GIG.pdf.
Improving access to adult learning opportunities among informal workers is an urgent priority in Thailand, where informality remains high across various economic sectors. Providing targeted support to informal workers can help ensure that they can participate in upskilling and reskilling opportunities that are normally accessible only to workers in the formal economy. Through participation in adult learning, informal workers could gain the skills they need to keep up with a rapidly changing labour market and facilitate their transition into formal employment.
Thailand can undertake the following specific actions to improve access to adult learning opportunities among informal workers:
5.1 Introduce a targeted subsidy scheme to support training for workers in sectors with high rates of informal employment. Thailand should introduce financial incentives, such as subsidies, to support informal workers in managing the costs of education and training while compensating for potential income lost during their participation in training. This incentive could be modelled after Malaysia’s Bina Kerjaya Programme for the Informal Sector (see Box 3.5). The subsidy should prioritise occupational sectors where informal employment is most prevalent in Thailand, namely as agriculture and fishing, as well as services and retail, among others. Additionally, the scheme should take educational attainment into consideration, targeting informal workers who have completed lower levels of education and who are thus more likely to benefit from adult learning opportunities.
5.2 Implement targeted outreach campaigns to raise awareness among informal workers about available adult learning opportunities and their benefits. Thailand should partner with industry associations and civil society groups that work directly with informal workers, as well as LAOs, CLCs, and NFEs, to raise awareness about adult learning. More specifically, the campaign should explain in layman’s terms key information that could help informal workers build their own initiative to participate in training. This includes the global megatrends shaping labour markets, the new and emerging skills relevant to their area of work, the benefits of participating in adult learning, available training opportunities, and where to access them.
Recommendation 6: Expanding access to adult learning among disadvantaged groups through online learning and community-based approaches
Providing adult learning opportunities that are inclusive and responsive to the needs of disadvantaged groups is key to ensuring equitable learning outcomes in Thailand. Investing in the learning of disadvantaged groups can enable them to realise their full potential, enabling better labour market outcomes, promoting inclusion, and combatting rising inequality more generally at the country level (UNESCO, 2020[121]). In recognition of this, Thailand is reportedly planning to increase spending on adult learning, with a particular focus on unemployed adults, disadvantaged adults due to lack of education and skills, residents of remote or rural areas, adults with disabilities, minority groups (ethnic, linguistic and religious), and indigenous peoples (UNESCO, 2022[7]). Providing learning materials and infrastructure (e.g. classrooms) that are inclusive and tailored to the needs of these different learners is an important factor in the success of disadvantaged learners (McGinty, 2018[122]). Thailand’s government recognises this need for inclusivity in lifelong learning spaces and is committed to developing physical and virtual learning facilities that are diverse, accessible and in line with the needs of all types of learners (NESDC, 2023[49]). However, there is very limited information on the participation of disadvantaged groups in adult learning opportunities, which has made it difficult for Thai policymakers to design effective and relevant initiatives (UNESCO, 2020[121]).
Despite these challenges, Thailand has a long history of implementing training targeted at improving the skills of high priority disadvantaged groups. Beyond informal workers, which make up a significant share of the Thai labour force (see Recommendation 5), government representatives have identified several other disadvantaged groups as priorities for skills development initiatives. These include dropouts or adults with low levels of skills, freelance or self-employed individuals, persons with disabilities, and the elderly. For these groups, various government agencies and ministries have reported putting in place numerous initiatives over the years to map their skills challenges, overcome barriers to participation in training, and provide them with upskilling and reskilling opportunities (see Table 3.6).
Source: OECD Skills Strategy Thailand stakeholder consultations; ILO (2011[123]), Promoting inclusive vocational education and training in the Asian region: Opening opportunities for persons with disabilities, www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/@asia/@ro-bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_170528.pdf; Saffa (2024), Digital Literacy for All: Navigating Thailand’s Digital Future, https://opengovasia.com/2024/05/17/digital-literacy-for-all-navigating-thailands-digital-future/.
It is important to recognise that many individuals in Thailand belong to multiple disadvantaged groups simultaneously. For instance, in Thailand, as in many Southeast Asian countries, levels of informality are higher among older people, and particularly older women. These people face difficulties finding formal jobs due to their age, and the lack of old-age income security pushes them into informal employment (ASEAN, 2022[124]). 79% of Thai’s low-income individuals also live in rural areas and work in agriculture, where rates of informal employment are highest (see Figure 3.12) (ILOSTAT, 2018[125]; World Bank, 2022[126]).
Source: National Statistics Office (2020); World Bank Group (2023[127]), Gender and digital development in Thailand, https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099518309112322076/pdf/IDU005e8c7fb01e69045b40b256059e0bdbdb644.pdf.
A key strategy for expanding adult learning participation among disadvantaged groups is through online learning, including MOOCs and open educational resources (OERs) (UNESCO, 2020[121]). As discussed more extensively in Recommendation 3, online forms of learning increase the flexibility of training programmes and make it more likely for adults to participate, as they can be accessed from anywhere and can be accomplished in line with individuals’ preferred schedules and learning pace (OECD, 2023[82]). In Thailand, the Thai MOOC platform, which was launched in 2016 (see Box 3.3), has helped make adult learning more accessible (in terms of both time and costs) among the public. There is a lack of reliable and systematic data on participation rates in adult learning in general in Thailand, but government representatives acknowledge that it is likely to be much lower among disadvantaged groups due to the multiple barriers they face, as well as their low levels of digital literacy.
The potential of online learning in Thailand is hampered by challenges related to digital inequalities, such as the urban-rural divide in digital infrastructure, where most investments, such as smart cities and digital parks, remain concentrated in urban areas (World Bank, 2023[128]). In 2020, the use of Internet and computers, was lower for both men and women in Thailand’s rural areas in comparison to their urban counterparts (see Figure 3.12). This highlights the need to pursue further efforts to equip disadvantaged groups – especially those living in rural areas – with the ICT tools they need to access online learning offers, including those on the Thai MOOC platform (see Box 3.3). Such efforts would also support Thailand 4.0 objectives and the country’s digitalisation objectives, including the 20-Year Digital Economy and Society Development Plan (2017-2036), which aims to construct high-capacity digital infrastructure through the country and develop a workforce for the digital era, among many other ambitions for digitalisation (World Bank, 2023[128]).
The provision of digital infrastructure must go hand in hand with efforts to improve the level of digital literacy among disadvantaged populations, especially in partnership with local actors that are active in the provision of adult learning, such as LAOs, CLCs and NFEs. Government representatives in Thailand have emphasised the need to equip these groups with adequate digital skills, which would allow them to follow online adult learning programmes with ease. These priorities are supported by evidence showing that 74% of Thai youth and adults have very low levels of digital skills and struggle to perform simple digital tasks, such as using a pointing device or keyboard or using online information to solve a problem (see Figure 3.2) (World Bank, 2024[41]). A comprehensive initiative that combines the provision of digital infrastructure and with training on digital skills can thus help ensure that Thailand is able to reap the benefits of online forms of adult learning. For example, in the European Union, the Erasmus-funded Our Digital Village project intervenes in rural areas by providing communities with digital and transversal skills through co-designed educational content that is tailored to local needs. The project targets educational institutions that offer formal and non-formal educational programmes, teachers in educational institutions, community organisations’ educational staff, adult learners, and policymakers (see Box 3.6).
In addition, Thailand could expand access to adult learning by reinforcing community-based approaches that are currently implemented by LAOs, CLCs, and NFEs, who are often the first points of contact with learning among many disadvantaged groups. Through these local community structures, adults are able to participate in various non-formal learning initiatives such as literacy classes and vocational skills training, but also informal learning opportunities through free access to learning materials such as textbooks, audio cassettes, and videos (Leowarin, 2010[25]). These local education structures have diverse functions, with their learning offers differing according to the needs of local communities (e.g. to increase literacy, to improve the elderly’s quality of life, to disseminate ICT skills) (Thongdee et al., 2022[24]; Leowarin, 2010[25]; Yenjai, 2014[26]). They receive financial support from local governments, which may be supplemented by contributions from members of local communities and indispensable implementation support from civil society (Leowarin, 2010[25]; UNESCO, 2003[129]).
Through the decades, community-based structures have been helpful in increasing access to adult learning opportunities among disadvantaged groups, especially in training areas that are highly relevant in their local communities (e.g. forest preservation, farming practices). However, challenges remain, such as the lack of training plans in some CLCs and the lack of adequate equipment and training staff, especially in small communities (Sompong and Rampai, 2015[130]). Furthermore, links between local training initiatives and national policy and development programmes are weak (Leowarin, 2010[25]), which can undermine relevance as labour markets continue to change rapidly. There are also limited recognition of prior learning (RPL) and course accreditation mechanisms, limiting the ability of community-based adult learning in Thailand to lead to qualifications that can help disadvantaged adults progress to higher levels of education and access employment opportunities in the formal sector (UN Thailand, 2021[131]).
Community-based approaches to adult learning need greater recognition at the political and strategic levels in order to strengthen their role as an essential element of the educational system and highlight their contributions to labour force development. Recognising the importance of community-based approaches – either through a unified adult learning strategy or a separate document (see Recommendation 2 in Chapter 4) – can help identify shared priorities and standards (while maintaining the current localised and decentralised approach to training) in line with national development objectives, as well as help mobilise additional human and financial resources to support the implementation of adult learning opportunities in these local structures. For example, in Scotland (UK), the Adult Learning Strategy 2022-2027 recognises the role that community-based adult learning plays in improving educational outcomes for adults and situates it as a valuable element of the wider education system (see Box 3.6). The strategy aims to help provide local education structures with equal status and stability in funding, as well as raise greater awareness about the benefits of community-based adult learning (Scottish Government, 2022[132]).
European Union: Our Digital Village project
Led by All-Digital, a pan-European association that works to promote digital skills, the Erasmus-funded Our Digital Village project aims to intervene in rural areas by promoting the acquisition of digital and transversal skills among local communities. The project’s main target groups include educational institutions offering formal and non-formal learning (e.g. schools, universities, NGOs), public institutions (municipalities), teachers/trainers of educational institutions, community organisations’ educational staff, adult learners, and policymakers and stakeholders. To achieve its objectives, the project raises awareness about how digitalisation will transform education, work and life, as well co-creates high-quality educational content that reflects local needs. Our Digital Village uses self-analysis workshops to determine the intrinsic motivation of individuals and their learning needs, which will then be reflected into educational materials and activities. Teachers and trainers are trained to ensure their capacity to implement the co-designed educational content and are equipped with pedagogical skills to teach various digital fields, such as coding, robotics, microcontrollers, 3D modelling and printing, and web development.
Scotland (UK): Recognition of community-based adult learning in national strategies
The Adult Learning Strategy for Scotland 2022-2027 is the first-ever adult learning strategy in the country. It aims to create new pathways for adult learning especially for those who are disadvantaged and puts community-based adult learners at the heart of the strategy. The strategy values community-based adult learning as an essential component of the wider education system and aims to provide it with equal status and stability in funding. To this end, it puts forth numerous interventions, such as the establishment of the national Adult Learners Advisory Group, which is a diverse group of community-based adult learners who are tasked to work alongside the Minister for Higher Education, Further Education, Youth Employment and Training’s Adult Learning Strategic Forum for Scotland. In the strategy, the government also commits to strengthening connections between community-based adult learning with careers and employment services, collect data on the impact of community-based adult learning, provide support for structured partnerships, strengthen recognition of prior learning mechanisms, and explore the development of national occupational standards for community-based adult learning, among many others.
Source: All Digital (2023[133]), Our Digital Village – Co-Designed Digital Education in Rural Areas, https://all-digital.org/projects/our-digital-village-co-designed-digital-education-in-rural-areas/; Our Digital Village (2023[134]), Homepage, https://ourdigitalvillage.erasmus.site/; Scottish Government (2022[132]), Adult learning strategy 2022 to 2027, www.gov.scot/publications/adult-learning-strategy-scotland-2022-27/documents/.
Expanding access to adult learning among disadvantaged groups through online learning and community-based approaches can help increase participation in training among those who need it most. Increased access to training can help individuals from disadvantaged groups realise their full potential, obtain better labour market outcomes, and promote equality and social cohesion more effectively at the country level. A key strategy to expand access for disadvantaged groups is to increase online learning options, which can help overcome various barriers to participation, such as time constraints and costs. Furthermore, increasing funding for and recognition of local structures, such as LAOs, CLCs and NFEs, can help highlight the importance of community-based approaches in reaching disadvantaged adult learners more easily.
Thailand can undertake the following actions to expand access to adult learning among disadvantaged groups through online learning and community-based approaches:
6.1 Expand access to adult learning among individuals in remote areas through inclusive online programmes. Thailand should promote participation among individuals in remote areas in courses available in existing platforms, such as Thai MOOC, where most learning offers are also inexpensive, if not free. This entails raising awareness about the existence of the platform among local communities and promoting its increased use, possibly in partnership with actors who are already currently active in the provision of non-formal learning among disadvantaged groups (e.g. Equitable Education Fund, the Department of Skills Development, the Ministry of Social Development and Human Security, the Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board), as well as local actors who are responsible for providing adult learning at the local level (e.g. LAOs, CLCs, NFEs).
6.2 Provide adults in rural areas with connectivity support and digital literacy training. Thailand should ensure that disadvantaged groups in rural areas, especially women, are provided with the ICT tools such as mobile phones and computers, which they would need to connect to the internet and access online learning platforms. Such tools must be tailored to their needs (e.g. with language options) in order to ensure inclusivity. In addition to providing them with the tools needed to access online programmes, disadvantaged adults should be provided with digital skills training that would allow them to navigate through online learning platforms, follow their courses with ease, accomplish digital tasks independently, and tailor the course according to their learning preferences and pace.
6.3 Strengthen existing local community structures (e.g. LAOs, CLCs, NFEs) to increase access to adult learning. Thailand should continue to support the implementation of community-based adult learning opportunities that are offered by local education structures such as LAOs, CLCs and NFEs. By formally recognising community-based approaches at the political and strategic level as essential parts of the education system (e.g. through a unified strategy or separate document, as discussed in Recommendation 2 in Chapter 4), Thailand can increase the financial and human resources dedicated to these local education structures, set minimum standards for quality and relevance, and link community-based learning offers to broader national development goals.
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← 1. In this chapter, the term lifelong learning is used interchangeably with adult learning, although there are differences between the two. Lifelong learning is a broader concept that encompasses all forms of skills development and knowledge acquisition throughout the lifecycle, while adult learning is a component of lifelong learning that occurs in adulthood and into old age (OECD, 2021[135]). In Thailand, as in many OECD countries, adult learning is offered primarily offered through non-formal education and training, which may also be used interchangeably with adult learning.
← 2. Based on a survey conducted on 100 employees from Thailand between November 2022 and January 2023 (Ritu Bhandari, 2023[136]).
← 3. Data based on the World Bank Enterprise Surveys, which surveyed 1 000 small, medium, and large firms across all five regions of Thailand in 2016. The following sectors were covered: food, garments, rubber and plastics production, electronics & communications, equipment, other manufacturing, retail, and other services (World Bank Group, 2016[139]).
← 4. In the World Bank Enterprise Survey, firm size levels are determined as the following: 5 to 19 employees (small), 20 to 99 employees (medium), and 100+ employees (large).
← 5. While VET broadly refers to training that imparts to students (e.g. at secondary or tertiary levels) a set of skills and knowledge that is specific to a specific trade, occupation or vocation, CVET is specifically targeted towards adults and is carried out after initial education or training or after entry into working life (CEDEFOP, 2015[137]; Eurostat, n.d.[138]).