Chapter 2 provides an overview of the innovation ecosystems of emerging technologies for citizen participation in Portugal, Spain, and the Netherlands. It contextualises each country's technological landscape and tradition of citizen participation, followed by a visual mapping of their respective innovation ecosystem of emerging technologies for citizen participation. It then examines these ecosystems through the lens of the quadruple helix framework – public sector, private sector, civil society organisations, and academia – highlighting key actors, their roles, and contributions to the ecosystem. The chapter concludes by identifying opportunities for public authorities within each ecosystem to strengthen the use of emerging technologies in enhancing citizen participation.
How Innovation Ecosystems Foster Citizen Participation Using Emerging Technologies in Portugal, Spain and the Netherlands
Abstract
This chapter presents the results of an exploration into the innovation ecosystems of emerging technologies for citizen participation in Portugal, Spain, and the Netherlands. For each country, the analysis is structured as follows:
First, a section on background and context to provide an overview of the historical, administrative, legal, social, and cultural context for citizen participation and how technology can enhance it.
Second, the section on the configuration of the ecosystem illustrates the key components of the ecosystem, highlighting key initiatives, actors and networks promoting innovation, governance and norms stimulating collaboration, and degree of technology adoption.
Third, the study deep dive on key actors’ specific roles1 and experiences in supporting design and adoption of emerging technologies for citizen participation.
Finally, the study identifies some leverage points (Meadows, 1999[13]) indicating possible actions that governments can take to intervene upon each ecosystem.
The role of citizen participation in Portugal has been well established since the 1974 Carnation Revolution (Falanga, 2018[14]). Civic freedoms which enable participation are enshrined in the Portuguese Constitution (OECD, 2023[15]). The Administrative Modernisation Agency (AMA) plays a key role promoting and supporting citizen participation and innovation across the public sector. In 2017, Portugal joined the Open Government Partnership, and in 2021, launched the Guiding Principles for a Human Rights Based Approach on Public Services (hereafter the Guiding Principles). These provide guidance for policymakers to engage citizens in the development of public services (OECD, 2023[15]).
Portugal is a forerunner in innovative approaches to sustain citizen participation, employing dedicated digital platforms and undertaking the world’s first nationwide participatory budget in 2017 (Falanga and Ferrão, 2021[16]). Lisbon's participatory budget model, established in 2007, has been widely adopted across municipalities. Citizens can participate online through a dedicated digital platform established by the city; in person through Participatory Assemblies, a participation mechanism to discuss proposals involving citizens, allowing for collective reflexion and debate; and since 2013, by SMS (Allegretti and Antunes, 2014; Falanga, 2018). The National Participatory Budget (NPB) invited citizens to propose and vote on projects, allowing to allocate resources of the public budget in its first two editions. However, the NPB was suspended in 2019 (Falanga, 2023[17]). The open source participa.gov platform, launched in 2021 and managed by AMA, provides a central tool to enable citizen participation initiatives and is exploring the use of Blockchain as a trust-preserving technology. Recently, the OECD mapped four deliberative processes in Portugal, in particular, the Lisbon Citizens’ Council, a permanent Assembly that has provided recommendations on climate change and urban adaptation (OECD, 2023[15]).
Efforts to digitise processes in the public administration, including citizen participation, face the challenge of low levels of digital skills among citizens. While programmes such as INCoDe have sought to enhance digital development and skills through a series of integrated policies (OECD, 2023[15]), the digital divide was raised as a concern by many interviewees. Only 41% of the total population in Portugal used online public services in 2021 (Eurostat, 2023[18]), with only 56% of the total population having basic or above basic digital skills (Eurostat, 2023[19]). Portugal ranks fifteenth out of 27 European Union (EU) member states in the 2022 edition of the Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) and fifteenth in use of digital public services or e-government (European Commission, 2022[20]). Among other initiatives, the Government of Portugal has launched, in 2022, the project ‘Eu Sou Digital’ (I am digital) to promote digital literacy and inclusion.
While an increase in voter turnout in Portugal is a positive democratic trend, polarising discourses and a lack of trust in government pose challenges for citizen participation. In 2023, 32% of Portuguese people reported high or moderately high trust in the central government, below the OECD average of 39% (OECD, 2024[21]). Interviewees in this research identified lack of trust as a key barrier for citizen participation in general and the use of emerging technology in citizen participation in particular.
Systemic Mapping Survey respondents, including public organisations, are exploring a range of technologies to enhance citizen participation. The technologies most respondents are actively using, developing or considering applications for are generative AI (39%), open source (36%) and privacy-preserving technology and cybersecurity (31%). Blockchain is identified in some interviews as a valuable technology to ensure trustworthy citizen participation processes, while AI is expected to help with the analysis of citizen proposals. In 2019, the Government of Portugal became a frontrunner in modernising public administration with the ethical use of AI, through the adoption of the AI Portugal 2030 strategy (Government of Portugal, 2019[22]).
2.1.1. Configuration of Portugal’s innovation ecosystem of emerging technologies for citizen participation
Based on responses to the Systemic Mapping Survey, the following network visualization was generated to showcase the relative position (nodes) and the nature of the connections (edges) between actors across the innovation ecosystem of emerging technologies for citizen participation in Portugal.
Note: This graph should be seen as a complement to other sources of evidence and analysis. It has been filtered to include only actors with 2 or more connections. Node size is proportional to number of connections identified. Respondents could appear more influential in the network graph by adding a large number of connections. Validation in the study was provided by asking respondents to highlight influential actors in each category of the quadruple helix. Original files can be accessed here.
Source: OECD based on responses to the survey.
Despite high levels of activity and support for citizen participation, initiatives are fragmented and use of technology for citizen participation is limited. The majority of citizen participation initiatives are commissioned by municipalities and take place at the local level with civil society organisations (CSOs) providing support and acting as intermediaries between citizens and municipalities. While Portugal ranks 11th in the Digital Government Index, regarding the dimension of openness by default the country stands at 19th, below OECD average (OECD, 2024[23]). The Network for Participative Municipalities (Rede de Autarquias Participativas, hereafter RAP), which is coordinated by the non-profit NGO Oficina, facilitates knowledge sharing for citizen participation. It awards an annual prize to establish and evolve good standards in this field. Nonetheless, information about participation initiatives is fragmented, with a key interviewee suggesting that technologies for citizen participation may be counter-productive given current levels of citizens’ trust in public institutions in Portugal.
Although citizen participation is a priority for public administration at the national level, initiatives to implement it, integrated with technology or not, are still fragmented and can be further consolidated. Examples of such initiatives include the National Participatory Budget and participa.gov, the national platform for participatory processes. In the private sector, networks led by organisations such as StartUp Portugal, 351 Portuguese Startup Association and Casa do Impacto (itself derived from third sector organisation Santa Casa da Misericórdia) play an important role in driving technological innovation for social impact, including citizen participation. However, they have resulted in very few startups exploring emerging technology for this purpose, echoing the findings of the GovTech Index 2020 that Portugal has ‘significantly fewer tech startups generally, and GovTech startups specifically, than other top-ranking countries [for GovTech] such as Spain and Brazil’ (CAF and Oxford Insights, 2020[24]).
While initiatives led by local government promote interaction across the innovation ecosystem, a lack of sustained government support results in a culture of competition, rather than collaboration among private sector and civil society organisations. Participatory initiatives at the municipal level promote collaboration between the private, public, academic, and civil society sectors. However, such projects are often not sustained, leading to uncertainty for private sector and civil society organisations operating in this field. According to some interviewees, this has led to a culture of competition for scarce resources that inhibits collaboration and innovation.
Ecosystem actors in Portugal expressed a desire for government to play a stronger role in promoting citizen participation through national strategies, agendas and plans, improving funding, and establishing platforms for networking and collaboration. Longer-term strategies and funding are identified by interviewees as key opportunities to further strengthen collaboration between government and non-government bodies on emerging technologies for participation and ensuring sustainable progress in citizen participation innovation. Collaboration both within Portugal and internationally are highlighted as important opportunities to develop and scale up innovations.
2.1.2. Ecosystem actors: roles, contributions and experiences
Public sector
Central government agencies are influential in the ecosystem of emerging technology for citizen participation, convening actors, establishing standards and contributing guidance, tools and expertise. AMA is identified by the most survey participants as an influential actor in the ecosystem of emerging technologies for citizen participation, leading key initiatives such as participa.gov, an online platform for citizen participation and the co-ordination of the multi-stakeholder forum for the Open Government Partnership. LabX, which sits within AMA, sets out guidelines, frameworks and tools to support public sector actors to undertake citizen participation initiatives and incorporate citizen input in their plans and activities. ANI, the national innovation agency of Portugal, is identified by the second greatest number of participants as influential actor. The organisation disseminates funding and publicises open calls, which may involve citizen participation aspects, such as the New European Bauhaus. INA, the National Institute of Administration, offers training to the public administration on participation.
Sectoral ministries and initiatives at the national level incorporate and promote citizen participation for specific topics or demographics. The Ministry of the Environment hosts its own citizen participation platform for consultations on planning, participa.pt. There has been a clear focus on youth participation, demonstrated in initiatives like Academia Participo!, operated by the Commission for Citizenship and Gender Equality (CIG) (Comissão para a Cidadania e a Igualdade de Género (CIG), 2021[25]), Participatory Budgeting for Schools and Portuguese Youth Participatory Budgeting (Dias et al., 2021[26]). However, further opportunities exist to ensure sustained support, with both the Portuguese Youth Participatory Budgeting and the National Participatory Budget discontinued since 2019.
However, the majority of citizen participation initiatives are initiated at the municipal or local level. The Network for Participative Municipalities (RAP), established in 2014 as an outcome of the project “Portugal Participa: Caminhos para a Inovação Social”, enables sharing of experiences and promotion of knowledge about participatory practices across more than 70 members. It gives an annual award for Good Participation Practices (Oficina, n.d.[27]).
Public sector actors identify a lack of public trust as the key barrier to citizen participation in Portugal with 73% of public sector respondents to the survey highlighting this. Other challenges include insufficient political support (64%), access to funding (64%), regulatory procedures (55%), and the ability to engage governments and officials (55%).
Public sector actors look to the wider ecosystem to engage with citizens, access to expertise and new ideas and perspectives. They express a preference for offline methods but are exploring and applying other technologies for specific circumstances, such as incorporating blockchain into participa.gov to eliminate vote fraud. Public sector highlights the need to reinforce digital training programs in rural areas to ensure more inclusive citizen participation. Nonetheless interviewees highlighted the importance of offline methods for citizen participation to ensure inclusion and effective deliberation.
Private sector
Private sector networks led by organisations such as 351 Portuguese Startup Association and Casa do Impacto play an important role in driving technological innovation for citizen participation. However, very few private sector organisations are active in developing new tools that can be used for citizen participation. Key actors include MyPolis, which develops tools for participatory democracy focused on young people, and eSolidar, a participation platform for companies and associations.
Private sector actors are motivated to collaborate with others in the ecosystem by new ideas and perspectives, support for co-operation with other stakeholders, access to citizens and access to information. However, according to interviewees, funding is a key challenge, with a perceived weak demand and lack of resources creating a culture of competition rather than collaboration and reducing access to talent. The small size of Portugal’s market and lack of sustained initiatives limit scaling possibilities for private sector activity.
Private sector organisations are experimenting with AI, blockchain and augmented reality. AI is being explored to support with automatic translation, while Blockchain is seen to promote transparency and trust.
Academia
Academic actors provide expertise, promote collaboration and innovation and create knowledge through the evaluation of citizen participation initiatives. Examples include the Forum dos Cidadãos, established by academics associated with Universidade Nova de Lisboa and Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (Fórum dos Cidadãos, n.d.[28]), the University of Aveiro, which has tested participatory approaches to strategic planning (Wolf, Nogueira and Borges, 2021[29]) and “Portugal Participa: Caminhos para a Inovação Social”, a partnership between an NGO, the Centre of Social Studies (CES University of Coimbra) and funded by the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, which was evaluated by Instituto de Ciências Sociais at the Universidade de Lisboa (Falanga and Ferrão, 2021[16]).
Academic actors explore the opportunities and impact of technology in civil society and for citizen participation. The AI, Communication & Democracy Lab at Nova IMS is exploring how AI can enhance citizen participation and improve government-citizen relationships (AI, Communication & Democracy Lab, 2024[30]). Within R&D research centres, such as the Centre for Responsible AI, academics are collaborating with private sector organisations to develop and test new technologies with relevance to citizen participation.
Academic actors acknowledged the benefits of cross-sector collaboration but highlight a lack of access to human resources as a key challenge. Collaboration with the private sector is seen as a driver of innovation and knowledge. More collaboration across Europe is considered necessary to scale up new applications of technology. The difficulty of academia to attract and retain human resources was identified as a key challenge as careers in academia are not considered competitive.
Civil society
CSOs play a key role in Portugal as trusted providers of support and services for citizens, often as intermediaries for the government. They cover a wide range of activities and are recognised as important partners in implementing initiatives like the Open Government Partnership. Municipalities routinely collaborate with them to engage citizens in citizen participation initiatives, such as neighbourhood regeneration in Porto (Falanga and Ferrão, 2021[16]).
CSOs promote inclusion, empower citizens and hold the government to account, playing a key role in monitoring the public administration’s use of technology. They advocate for specific communities and speak out on relevant digital and participation issues ranging from digital inclusion and data privacy to civic engagement and capacity building. Organizations like the Centre of Digital Inclusion (CDI) implement projects promoting digital literacy and active citizenship, essential skills for participating and engaging with digital platforms.
CSOs provide support to the public administration for the design and implementation of citizen participation initiatives. Examples include In Loco's leading role in the PP project and Oficina's co-ordination of the RAP network and provision of tools and guidance to enhance citizen participation (Falanga and Ferrão, 2021[16]).
Specific organisations provide and disseminate funding for initiatives which promote active citizenship and citizen participation. For instance, the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation provided funding for the Portugal Participa project between 2014-2016. It currently manages the Active Citizens Fund, with annual calls funded between 2018-2022 through a combination of EEA Grants and the Foundation’s own resources.
Despite their importance, limited funding and administrative barriers create uncertainty that erodes CSOs’ willingness to collaborate with the public sector on citizen participation. An additional issue identified by interviewees is the small size of Portugal’s system for citizen participation, meaning that there are not many structured occasions and only limited resources to replicate and scale approaches. This echoes similar challenges experienced by private sector actors.
CSOs collaborate with others in the ecosystem to obtain improved recognition and public profile and new ideas and perspectives. For CSOs, the ecosystem is an important enabler of networking and access to “resources such as funding, knowledge and expertise from other organisations and sectors" (Interviewee 57, civil society organisation) as well as digital infrastructure.
Few CSOs are exploring or using emerging technologies, although some, like Coletivo Matéria, use AI tools. Most rely on conventional digital tools for communication and collaboration.
This project engaged young people in Cascais (aged 18-28) through an in-person workshop to understand the drivers and barriers they experience for citizen participation. The participants underwent two rounds of issue framing as groups, first naming the main pain points of citizen participation they themselves experience to a common specification of the issue by means of a challenge canvas. The final phase involved using rapid prototyping techniques to generate potential solutions to these issues through tangible prototyping materials, such as building blocks.
Participants positively highlighted recent experiences of democratic engagement, where they were given clear information and communicated with via social media. In contrast, they identified poor communication with public administration and a lack of information about topics and opportunities for citizen participation as having a negative impact on participation.
2.1.3. Areas of opportunity for the public authorities to enhance the use of emerging technology for citizen participation
Adopt a strategic direction and clear goals: Actors indicate a lack of strategic direction on adopting emerging technologies for citizen participation initiatives, leading to uncertainty and competition rather than collaboration. Portugal’s Open Government Action Plans could be used to discuss and establish clear national objectives for citizen participation and emerging technology integration, gaining legitimacy from the multi-stakeholder forum.
Set rules and standards for technology use: Building on the work of AMA (LabX), guidelines and standards for the implementation of citizen participation initiatives and the use of emerging technologies could set expectations and ensure that participation undertaken effectively. CSO participation can help to ensure that inclusion is a key priority. Leveraging the work of academic institutions, such as Universidade Nova and the Centre for Responsible AI, could help establish practical and ethical guidelines for the application of emerging technologies in this area.
Enhance information flows and feedback loops: Poor communication and lack of information highlighted by citizens and CSOs can be addressed through improved communication about opportunities to participate and mechanisms to demonstrate influence and impact of citizen participation on decision-making. Broader communication and expansion of recognition initiatives, such as the RAP award for Good Participation Practices, could promote the adoption and innovation of citizen participation by both public administration and civil society.
Establish sustainable funding mechanisms: Actors highlight that limited funding creates uncertainty and erodes willingness for collaboration among CSOs. Collaboration and innovation could be promoted through sustainable funding mechanisms for citizen participation initiatives and related technologies linked to clear national objectives.
Strengthen and expand the ecosystem structure: Actors highlight that Portugal offers limited opportunities for scaling up approaches and technologies for citizen participation. Efforts to tap into global value chains can promote scaling and incentivise further activity. Successful local participatory initiatives in Portugal, such as participatory budgeting initiatives at the municipal level, could be further explored as a building block to scale participatory approaches to the national level or transversally apply its lessons learned to other participatory instruments.
Since Spain’s transition to democracy, the country has had a strong history of participatory governance driven by civil society at the local level. The 1978 Constitution solidified efforts to involve citizens in the democratic process. During the 1980s, tools and mechanisms for formalized participation were established under pressure from neighbourhood organizations (Brugé, Font and Gomà, 2003[31]). Key legislation, including the 1985 Law of Bases of Local Regime and the 2003 Law of Measures for the Modernisation of Local Government, established frameworks for citizen participation and urged local entities to adapt their regulations. Spain's EU accession in 1986 further aligned participatory practices with European standards. Nationally, initiatives like the Open Government Partnership (joined in 2011) and the Open Government Forum (established in 2018) have fostered collaboration between administration and civil society, to set objectives, share experiences and promote good practices on citizen participation, including through digital participation platforms and innovation laboratories. OECD reports on Open Government and the promotion of deliberative democracy in Spain highlight a strong culture of innovation at the subnational level (OECD, 2024[32]; OECD, 2019[33]). For example, the OECD mapped 15 deliberative processes in Spain, including the recent Citizen Assemblies in the Basque Country dealing with mental health and climate change (OECD, 2024[32]).
Social movements using digital technologies, spurred innovation, and adoption of citizen participation in the 2010s. These called for greater transparency, accountability, and citizen participation in governance. Collaborations between actors involved in these movements and the public administration led to the development of new approaches for citizen participation, particularly at city and municipal levels, with innovations such as Decidim and Consul Democracy sprouting at the local level. The participation of citizens in municipal politics has become more diverse and innovations have flourished in recent years, including participatory budgets, deliberative surveys, citizen assemblies and local councils or forums (Hernandez, 2018[34]). Echoing a consolidated openness, Spain’s ranked 7th at the OECD level in the dimension Open by default, while positioned as 15th in the overall Digital Government Index (OECD, 2024[23]).
Spain has a high level of digitalisation, digital public services, and connectivity, establishing a strong foundation for the development and implementation of new technologies for citizen participation. Spain ranks 7th out of 27 European Union (EU) member states in the 2022 edition of the Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) and ranks among the top European countries in terms of connectivity (3rd) and use of digital public services or e-government (5th) (European Commission, 2022[35])
Success stories of using technologies for citizen participation are anchored in local contexts, which harbour technological ecosystems with dynamic interactions between actors. The country’s ability to foster innovative tools for citizen participation is evident in the emergence of two initiatives for digital democracy: Consul, developed in Madrid and Decidim in Barcelona, with the aim of providing digital platforms for participation and offering face-to-face channels for interaction. These tools have been replicated in many countries and levels of government, including the European Union (Generalitat de Catalunya and Political Watch, 2022[36]). Spain is the top-ranked country in the Ibero-American region in the GovTech Index 2020 (CAF and Oxford Insights, 2020[24]). According to this study, Spain has high indicators in the three pillars analysed: the supply of startups, government demand for this type of technologies and the legal framework.
2.2.1. Configuration of Spain’s innovation ecosystem of emerging technologies for citizen participation
From the responses to the Systemic Mapping Survey, the following network visualization was generated to showcase the configuration of the innovation ecosystem of emerging technologies for citizen participation in Spain.
Note: This graph should be seen as a complement to other sources of evidence and analysis. It has been filtered to include only actors with 2 or more connections. Node size is proportional to number of connections identified. Respondents could appear more influential in the network graph by adding a large number of connections. Validation in the study was provided by asking respondents to highlight influential actors in each category of the quadruple helix. Original files can be accessed here. Source: OECD based on responses to the survey.
The ecosystem of actors working on emerging technologies for citizen participation in Spain is dynamic but segmented. Actors across the ecosystem share similar goals of improving citizen participation and democracy through innovation and are open to collaborating to gain ‘new ideas and perspectives’. However, opportunities exist to strengthen co-ordination on the implementation of emerging technologies for participation at the national level. Currently, smaller networks based around individual actors or initiatives encourage collaboration on specific topics, inside particular regions, or within certain sectors. These include the NovaGob Network, which organises one of the most important congresses on public sector innovation in Spain, the Decidim community, which connects users and developers of Decidim around the world, and the Network of Local Entities for Transparency and Citizen Participation of the FEMP (Red de Entidades Locales por la Transparencia y la Participación Ciudadana de la FEMP), which plays an important role in the co-ordination and dissemination of citizen participation and open government initiatives. Despite Portugal, the Netherlands and Spain all being members of the Open Government Partnership, its influence was uniquely recognised by actors in Spain. Interviewees highlighted the Open Government Forum, consisting of members from civil society and the public administration, as having potential to further enhance national cross-sectoral collaboration on citizen participation. Spain has attempted to address co-ordination challenges in participation through its Draft V Plan on Open Government (2024-2028).
Civil society actors and municipalities are connected most frequently on average with actors across all sectors, demonstrating their transversal role and influence in the Spanish ecosystem. Academic institutions show strong interaction with CSOs, reflecting a collaborative effort in research and policy advocacy. An example of this relationship is the Open Manifesto Project, developed between Political Watch and the University of Valencia (Chair of Civic Technology and Empowerment), a virtual platform that allows consulting the electoral proposals of political parties through a virtual assistant. Government entities, especially at municipal level, also have significant interactions with civil society organisations, highlighting the importance of civil society in the local governance processes. Examples include the strong collaborative relationship that the Regional Federation of Neighbourhood Associations of Madrid (FRAVM) maintains with the Madrid City Council. Ensuring inclusivity and representativeness of participation are highly relevant for both CSOs and the public sector, as shared by workshop participants.
Collaboration among actors is supported by shared standards and informal norms. Ecosystem actors express a strong willingness to collaborate and work openly, both through networks and specific projects. Open source is identified as a key standard given the use of public funds. Interviewees also identified a shared belief that technologies for citizen participation must be deployed in line with democratic principles.
Open source is a shared standard for actors working on citizen participation, with many exploring applications for Generative AI and Blockchain. Open source has a widespread use with 34.7% of organizations actively using or developing it, and 26.7% considering its applications. Open source is a standard for some organisations working on citizen participation, such as Decidim, who does not integrate proprietary technologies. Generative AI and cloud computing are also being actively used or considered by many actors, with the private sector most likely to be exploring technologies in general. Regarding the potential uses of these emerging technologies in participatory processes, interviewees mentioned that (i) blockchain is primarily to ensure the integrity of electronic voting processes and the transparent management of public data; (ii) artificial intelligence (AI), which facilitates the analysis of large volumes of data, to moderate citizen proposals automatically, match community needs with relevant research and detect ‘spam’ users; and (iii) open data platforms to improve transparency and encourage citizen participation through the availability of public data and the accessibility of the processes.
Most non-government actors expressed that government could do more to promote technological innovation in citizen participation through the development of national strategies and the provision of sustainable funding. Interviewees pointed to the need for stronger central government co-ordination of innovative practices, as well a clearer public communication on strategic directions as important preconditions to the sustainability of the innovation ecosystem. Ad-hoc public funding, compared to sustained sources of funding, represents long-term uncertainty for open-source technologies. Limitations in funding were also identified as a source of competition between ecosystem actors, preventing effective collaboration. To address these challenges, survey respondents called on the government to develop national strategies, agendas and plans, increase funding and grants for business R&D and innovation and establish networking and collaborative platforms.
2.2.2. Ecosystem actors: roles, contributions and experiences
Public sector
Public entities, largely at the municipality level, are decisive sponsors, end-users and decision-makers regarding the input gathered through citizen participation initiatives. These actors are an important source of demand for citizen participation processes. They establish requirements for innovation and create opportunities for experimentation in the field to make the most effective use of civic input. Frontrunners include Madrid City Council and Barcelona City Council. Across municipalities, the Network of Local Entities for Transparency and Citizen Participation, part of the Spanish Federation of Municipalities and Provinces (FEMP), promotes transparency and citizen participation among local governments. Further, the Basque Country in Spain has recently led innovative approaches to citizen participation, including the establishment of a permanent citizen assembly at the city level in Tolosa and at the Basque level (OECD, 2024[32]).
At the national and regional levels, public entities set guidelines and standards for participation. They encourage and support the implementation of participatory processes, produce guidelines, and action plans, and stimulate the development of new solutions through objective setting and project leadership. Key actors include the Ministry of Finance and the Civil Service, responsible for the participation pillar in Spain's IV Open Government Action Plan, and the Directorate-General for Data of the Ministry of Digital Transformation and the Civil Service. The Directorate-General for Citizen Participation of the Government of Catalonia, and the Department of Governance, Digital Administration and Self-Government in the Basque Country are examples of entities that, at the regional level, aim to encourage and facilitate the participation of citizens in decision-making and public affairs.
Teams and entities within the public administration provide support and information to promote innovation in citizen participation. These include HazLab and the Laboratory of Public Innovation in the National Institute of Public Administration (LIP/INAP), and regional entities like LAAAB Laboratorio de Aragón Gobierno Abierto, and Aranzazulab in the Basque Country.
Key challenges in the public sector include lack of a transversal co-ordination, limited awareness and capabilities for citizen participation, and lack of public trust. Public sector organizations lag in adopting and exploring emerging technologies, despite their role in providing opportunities for innovation. They recognise the value of new technologies such as AI to help process and categorise citizen input, but state that they must be used carefully and evaluated.
Private sector
Private sector technology developers and implementers provide software for different participatory processes, enabling technology-supported citizen participation. Three types of actors can be identified in this role: (i) developers that provide a wide set of services, such as e-Agora; (ii) developers that provide software as a service for a specific process (for example a consultation or an online voting process), such as OsOigo, Kuorum and Appsamblea; and finally (iii) companies that implement the open-source platforms Decidim and Consul. These companies offer implementation, customization, technical support and training services, ensuring that participatory platforms are adapted to the specific needs of each community or city council (e.g. Democrateam, Enreda, PokeCode or Colectic).
Many companies across the ecosystem provide consulting services for the implementation of citizen participation processes, addressing and complementing public sector needs and capabilities. These include Deliberativa, Ibatuz, PR4, EIDOS, Novadays.
Start-up accelerators play a crucial role in promoting innovation in citizen participation by supporting tech startups for citizen engagement and open government. Gobe, an innovation studio specializing in Govtech, puts its focus on public-private collaboration to drive digital transformation in the public sector.
Private sector actors identify, in the Systemic Mapping Survey, access to sustainable funds (53%) and public contracts, level of public awareness of the field (53%), rules and procedures dictated by regulation (47%), and level of political support (44%) as key challenges to their work. Public procurement processes often hinder small companies' participation.
Private sector organisations are most active in using, developing, and considering new technologies, playing a key role in exploring how they can be applied. Three quarters of private sector respondents of the survey are actively using, developing, or considering open source, while over half are actively using, developing or considering generative AI and cloud computing.
Academia
Academic actors conduct research, provide expert advice for participation, and play a key role to bridge research and practice in citizen participation. They identify gaps, challenges, and opportunities within the ecosystem and play a key role in Spain’s Open Government Forum. Key actors include public research institutes like the Institute of Government and Public Policy (IGOP) and independent groups like GIGAPP and the NovaGob Foundation.
Academia provides services, such as training, solution development and implementation support. For example, the National University of Distance Education (UNED) delivers courses for public servants, while the Centre of Innovation in Technology for Human Development at UPM collaborates on participation methodologies.
For academic actors, collaborating with others in the ecosystem stimulates new ideas and perspectives (76%), provides access to expertise (61%), and enables the development of key connections with government officials (61%), as expressed in the Systemic mapping Survey. Key barriers include access to funding (63%) and regulatory procedures (55%). Interviews revealed challenges such as low public motivation to participate and resistance to citizen participation within the public administration.
Academic actors actively develop new technological applications, with Generative AI and natural language processing being most explored (38%). They acknowledge the transformative impact of digital platforms on citizen participation but note a shift from technological optimism to apprehension in the field. Key actors exploring emerging technologies include the Internet Interdisciplinary Institute (IN3).
Civil society
Civil society organisations provide key technological tools and support. Organisations such as Consul and Decidim, originating in Madrid and Barcelona respectively, develop and provide open-source technology for participatory processes under non-profit organisation schemes. They face challenges in sustainable funding and governance due to their open-source, free-to-use model.
Civil society organisations provide citizen-centric consultancy and support for citizen participation. They include actors such as Deliberativa, a non-profit association that specializes in the design and facilitation of participatory and deliberative processes, and Platoniq Lab, which offers tools that facilitate collaboration between social actors and combine creativity and technology to solve community problems.
Civil society organisations play a key role in promoting innovation in citizen participation and open government. Organisations such as Political Watch, and Civio promote transparency and accountability in Spain and undertake monitoring and analysis of public sector activity, providing tools that enable citizens to access and assess public information. Actors such as Arantzazulab and Red CIMAS convene and support actors to explore new approaches for collaborative governance and strengthen capacities for citizen participation. The Open Government Forum, consisting of members from civil society and the public administration, has established communities of practice to share good practices for citizen participation. Cotec Foundation provides research and advice to public and private sector entities to promote technological innovation.
Specific citizen associations are represented by dedicated civil society organisations, empowering them and acting as mediators with the public administration. They include neighbourhood associations, youth associations and groups based on specific identities. They are often convened by larger confederations, such as the CEAV (State Confederation of Neighbourhood Associations).
Key challenges for civil society are funding (69%), access to data (54%) and rules and procedures dictated by regulation (54%), according to their answers to the Systemic Mapping Survey. Interviews reveal additional concerns with organisational culture and capabilities in the public sector, a lack of political support and challenges resulting from a lack of co-ordination.
About half of CSOs surveyed are using or considering AI and open-source technologies. They approach new technologies cautiously, emphasising democratic and transparent implementation.
This project engaged young people in Madrid (aged 18-29) through an in-person workshop to understand the drivers and barriers they experience with citizen participation. These citizens explained that they find that digital tools for citizen participation make democratic engagement easier.
However, they shared experiences of poorly run citizen participation processes which damage trust in government and motivation to contribute. Limited information about citizen participation processes, goals, and how their input will be used, causes them to feel sceptical that their contributions will lead to genuine outcomes.
2.2.3. Areas of opportunity for public authorities to enhance the use of emerging technology for citizen participation
Adopt a strategic direction and clear goals: Actors indicate that while there are many initiatives, the ecosystem driving emerging technologies for citizen participation is segmented and lacks a cohesive direction. Spain’s V Open Government Action Plans could be leveraged to promote national level goals with an enhanced focus on innovation for citizen participation.
Set rules and standards for technology use: CSOs can help governments to set guidelines which ensure that citizen participation is undertaken in alignment with democratic principles and designed in an inclusive and citizen-centric manner.
Enhance information flows and feedback loops: Declining trust in government institutions and low participation rates could be addressed by enhancing transparency and feedback mechanisms to demonstrate how citizen input influences decision-making.
Build capacities and mindsets in the public administration: Actors identify a lack of capabilities and support in the public administration as barriers to innovation in citizen participation. Government entities like HazLab, LAAB and LIP/INAP have the potential to build capacities and a culture of citizen engagement through knowledge sharing and support.
Establish sustainable funding mechanisms: Critical platforms for the use of technology in citizen participation face uncertainty in funding. Commitment to funding or support to establish sustainable funding models could secure these important shared infrastructures.
Strengthen and expand the ecosystem structure: Collaboration and co-ordination across silos in the public administration and the wider ecosystem could be supported by strengthening the roles of the Open Government Forum in coordinating and evolving citizen participation initiatives across different levels of government.
The Netherlands has a strong culture of collaboration and consensus building, but trust in institutions has been decreasing and polarisation is a concern for many. The ‘polder model’, a collaborative approach for consensus building deriving from the historical necessity of managing polders (land reclaimed from the sea) is an important foundation of Dutch politics and society. Despite this collaborative culture, most Dutch people are concerned about political polarisation, with three quarters of Dutch citizens believing that it is increasing (SCP, 2022[37]). In 2023 44% of Dutch people in 2023 reported high or moderately high trust in the national government, representing a 5% decrease since 2021 (OECD, 2024[38]). A key issue contributing to this distrust are past experiences where citizens feel their input has been solicited but not genuinely considered in decision-making processes.
The government of the Netherlands has been taking steps to enhance participation. Recent laws like The Environment and Planning Act and The Strengthening Participation at the Decentralized Level Act set new expectations for citizen participation. The Kenniscentrum voor Beleid en Regelgeving (Knowledge Centre for Policy and Regulations) shares information about how to start a participation process for government organizations, based on the work of the Kennisknooppunt Participatie (Knowledge Hub for Participation), established by The Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management (I&W). In 2021, citizenship education was added to school curricula, promoting democratic values and participation skills (Government of the Netherlands, 2021[39]). In addition, the OECD mapped 22 deliberative processes in the Netherlands, including an ongoing National Citizen Assembly on climate change (OECD, 2023[15]).
The Netherlands supports a high level of technological innovation and digitalisation, including in citizen participation. The Netherlands ranks third on the Digital Economy and Society Index, and fourth in use of digital public services or e-government (European Commission, 2022[40]), reflecting the country's digital infrastructure, level of digital skills, and the quality of digital services provided by the government. This technological foundation supports innovation in citizen participation. Strengthening citizen participation with digital tools’ is a commitment in the most recent Open Government Action Plan. To achieve this, the Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations (BZK) is committed to developing the tool Pol.is for national use (Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, 2023[41]). A wide range of other tools and techniques for citizen participation are available, including platforms like OpenStad and Consul.
Nonetheless, citizens in the Netherlands have concerns about the development of new technologies and their application by government. Trust in the government's handling of personal data has significantly declined, dropping from 32% in 2018 to 19% in 2023 (KPMG, 2023[42]). A key factor in this erosion of trust is the child benefits affair, where thousands of parents were wrongfully accused of fraud based on algorithms, resulting in severe financial and social consequences. Additionally, 52% of Dutch citizens express concerns about the rise of AI and algorithms, particularly regarding privacy (KPMG, 2023[42]). In this sense, the Netherlands performance in terms of open data and openness by default ranks at 16th, just below OECD average, occupying the 22nd position on overall Digital Government Index (OECD, 2024[23]).
2.3.1. Configuration of the Netherlands’ innovation ecosystem of emerging technologies for citizen participation
From responses to the Systemic Mapping Survey, the following network visualization was generated to showcase the relative position of actors and their specific relationships across the innovation ecosystem of emerging technologies for citizen participation in the Netherlands.
Note: This graph should be seen as a complement to other sources of evidence and analysis. It has been filtered to include only actors with 2 or more connections. Node size is proportional to number of connections identified. Respondents could appear more influential in the network graph by adding a large number of connections. Validation in the study was provided by asking respondents to highlight influential actors in each category of the quadruple helix. Original files can be accessed here.
Source: OECD based on responses to the survey.
The ecosystem for citizen participation and emerging technology citizen participation in the Netherlands is dynamic and involves actors from across the public, private, academic and civil society sectors. Public-sector led initiatives such as Kennisknooppunt Participatie, OpenStad, the Pol.is pilot, and academic projects such as the REDRESS consortium effectively connect diverse actors, stimulate collaboration, and drive the ecosystem forward through activities such as networking events, (citizen driven) research projects, and the development of participatory tools. Private-sector initiatives, such as Populytics, features tools widely accepted by the community and used by the government. Key requirements for their success include funding, commonly shared sense of direction, and the effective integration of technology within well-organised participatory processes.
Co-operation among actors across the ecosystem is supported by shared aims, standards, and norms. Actors across the ecosystem share similar aims, with most survey respondents providing mission statements for their organisations that align with goals to improve citizen participation. Actors throughout the ecosystem identify open source as a norm; this is also government policy: “Software that the government develops (or has developed) must be open source as much as possible” (Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations., 2020[43]). Many actors in the ecosystem prioritise the citizen perspective on the implementation of new technologies, rather than a top-down technological push. There is a strong concern for inclusivity within the ecosystem, with aims to prevent gaps in knowledge and risks associated with technology uses and practices that could be discriminatory. Many are committed to expanding the ecosystem, welcoming anyone interested in participating. This is illustrated by a quote from a public sector representative: "We just have to ensure that it creates enthusiasm and that we inspire people to do more."
Nonetheless, there is no dedicated national network to orchestrate all ecosystem actors around citizen participation. The closest to a national entity is the Kennisknooppunt Participatie, an initiative of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management (I&W). Despite having a broad knowledge agenda for 2024 and an extensive network of partners, several interviewees note that this Knowledge Hub focuses mainly on initiatives that do not rely on digital technologies. Consequently, the relevance of the Kennisknooppunt Participatie varies across different actors in the ecosystem. Another example, Network Democracy in Action, engages the Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations (BZK), the Association of Dutch Municipalities (VNG), the professional associations of local government leaders and professionals (council members, provincial councillors, clerks, aldermen, municipal secretaries, and mayors) to innovate and strengthen local and provincial democracy.
Most digital participation platforms and tools in the Netherlands have developed their own specific communities. These include Alkemio, Go Vocal, OpenStad, Polis, Smart Citizen, and Smarticipatie. These communities typically organise on their platforms or through tools like Slack to exchange ideas, share knowledge, and provide technical support. Interaction between these specific communities is relatively limited because most users, except larger municipalities with more budget, typically use only a single platform.
Only a minority of the Systemic Mapping Survey respondents are actively using, developing or considering the applications of emerging technologies. The most frequently used technological standard is open source, with 24% of organizations actively using or developing it, and 19% considering its applications.
The second, third, and fourth positions for used technologies are all AI-related, indicating strong interest and activity in AI applications among organizations. Interviews highlight AI's specific uses, such as analysing feedback, assisting in policymaking by creating personas for citizens to participate virtually, and simplifying texts so that they are easier to understand. Commonly used tools include ChatGPT and platforms from companies like Go Vocal, Alkemio, and Dembrane. Digital Twins, AR, and VR are identified as supporting participation regarding the physical environment.
Actors across the ecosystem feel that the government could promote innovation in citizen participation through clearer direction and sustainable funding. 41% of survey respondents identified the development of national agendas, strategies, and plans as a key priority for government to stimulate the ecosystem for citizen participation and emerging technology. Clearer direction on what constitutes high quality participation (for example through a quality mark from the Ministry of Interior and Kingdom Relations (BZK) or the Association of Municipalities (VNG) could set standards and promote innovation. Sustainable funding for open-source initiatives and framework agreements detailing the roles of different organisations in the maintenance of long-standing initiatives like OpenStad are also identified as missing elements of the governance of citizen participation in the Netherlands.
2.3.2. Ecosystem actors: roles, contributions and experiences
Public sector
Ministries play a crucial role as funders and regulators of citizen participation processes. The Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations (BZK) is responsible for policy on democracy and citizenship, hosting a dedicated Directorate of Democracy and Governance (DenB) and overseeing the Netherlands’ Open Government Partnership Action Plans (Open Government Partnership, 2022[44]), which include commitments for digital democracy, open source development and the professionalisation of participation. The Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management (I&W) has a dedicated directorate for participation and is developing a knowledge hub (Kennisknooppunt Participatie).
Municipalities are the most prominent initiators and ‘end users’ of input from citizen participation, providing opportunities and funding for innovative approaches. The municipalities of The Hague and Amsterdam are forerunners in citizen participation. Amsterdam pioneered the development of OpenStad, a digital participation platform in 2016, which was adopted by The Hague in 2019. The South Holland Municipality envisaged four scenarios for the future on the integration of citizen participation and emerging technologies, such as AI, reflecting on the potential of the use of digital platforms for citizen participation. In general, municipalities employ one of four approaches to apply digital technologies to citizen participation:
1. Using all-in-one closed platforms managed by companies like Go Vocal (formerly known as CitizenLab).
2. Developing their own closed tools, such as Rotterdam and Eindhoven.
3. Developing or using open-source platforms like OpenStad or Consul
4. Primarily using an open-source tool but occasionally integrating specific or proprietary tools and techniques like Populytics or Swipocratie.
The Association of Dutch Municipalities (VNG) plays a crucial connecting role, gathering knowledge, sharing information, and managing complex aspects of digital participation technologies.
Key barriers in the public sector include lack of strategic direction, continuity, skills and capacities, and commitment to participatory practices. In accordance with Systemic Mapping Survey respondents, public sector organisations face barriers to developing and implementing emerging technology for citizen participation such as security of data and privacy protection (79%), regulatory rules (64%), administrative capabilities (36%), and levels of public trust (36%). Respondents pointed that public administration could further prioritise meaningful participation, which was often perceived to be curbed by efficiency reasons. Initiatives like OpenStad struggled to establish sustainable governance and funding models.
Public sector organisations lag behind others in their adoption and exploration of emerging technologies. Respondents from public sector organisations are the least likely to state that they are actively using and or developing or considering applications of the technologies polled (13% on average versus 18% across all sectors). The most frequently used are Open Source, Generative AI, Machine Learning, Digital Twins, Cloud computing and Internet of Things.
Private sector
Private sector platform and technology providers play a key role developing, implementing and testing new digital solutions for citizen participation. They create specialised tools and platforms, often combining them with consultancy services. Populytics stands out as a significant actor, operating the Wevaluate platform based on research from TU Delft. Other key providers include Mett, Go Vocal, and Alkemio. Other private sector organisations contribute to the development and implementation of citizen participation initiatives but are not central to the ecosystem. These include big tech companies, engineering firms, and design agencies.
Private sector consultancies offer advice and support with the facilitation of participatory processes. These organisations, such as Smarticipatie and Facilitation Company, use a range of platforms and approaches to support the public sector.
For private sector organisations data security and privacy protection (74%) and rules and procedures dictated by regulation (67%) are primary barriers, as stated in responses to the Systemic Mapping Survey. The most significant enabler for them is the ability to engage with governments and officials (63%). A large majority of private sector actors engage with others in the ecosystem to access new ideas and perspectives (88%) and seek improved recognition and public profile for their work (59%), connections with government officials, contacts with customers and access to expertise (56%).
Private sector organisations are the most likely to be actively using and/or developing or considering applications of emerging technologies (23% on average versus 18% across all sectors). In this respect, they play an important role in contributing practical knowledge for the application of new technologies to citizen participation.
Academia
Academic actors explore and develop new approaches and tools for citizen participation using emerging technology. TU Delft hosts influential researchers, with the Participative Value Evaluation (PVE) method having a significant impact. The Hague University of Applied Sciences focuses on emerging technologies for citizen participation, including VR. Additionally, HHS is developing the platform Public Dialogues, an online participation platform that enables residents to interact, exchange ideas, and discuss various topics.
Academic actors contribute evidence-based guidance for citizen participation initiatives. The Rathenau Institute produces research reports on improving democracy through technology. The REDRESS project, undertaken by a consortium of four universities (Tilburg University, Radboud University, Utrecht University, University Twente) and the Netherlands Institute of Social Research is investigating hybrid democratic innovations.
Alongside universities, think-tanks and research organisations contribute to the development and implementation of citizen participation. These include the Nederlands Platform Burgerparticipatie (NPBO) and Platform31.
Actors from academia primarily seek funding and new ideas and perspectives (79%) and connections with government officials (67%). Further results from the Systemic Mapping Survey show that access to funding is a significant barrier for academic actors (67%). Other barriers identified are rules and procedures dictated by regulation (67%) and security of data and privacy protection (56%).
Academic actors stand out as considering cutting edge technologies, exploring applications that are not yet confirmed in their effectiveness and marketability such as Digital Twins and VR or AR (44.4%). Like other sectors, actors in academia are likely to be using and exploring Open-Source standards and Generative AI, but they are unique in exploring Digital Twins and VR or AR with such high frequency and could provide expertise in this area.
Civil society
Civil society networks and advocacy actors help citizens to connect and build communities. Organizations like Buurkracht, National Collaboration of Active Citizens (LSA), and Collectieve Kracht support citizen initiatives and generate motivation for civic engagement. Interest groups based around specific topics, professions and localities are often invited to contribute to consultations on relevant government policy and activity.
CSOs support in technology development, deployment and maintenance. Waag explores technology's role in society, managing Code for NL and investigating how residents can use technology to take ownership of their environment and collaborate with the government. The Consul Democracy Foundation manages a community around the Consul open-source participation platform.
CSOs are more likely to be using or exploring privacy preserving technology and cybersecurity than actors in other sectors. While CSOs follow the trend of using and considering Open Source and Generative AI, they are unusual in their use of privacy preserving technology and cybersecurity, reflecting their concern for the preservation of citizen safety and rights.
CSOs seek to improve their access to information and connections with stakeholders, but they face relatively few barriers compared to other sectors. CSOs seek information and support for collaboration with other stakeholders (both 75%), as well as connections with government officials, access to funding, access to expertise, new ideas and perspectives (62.5%). Some technology projects such as Consul highlight challenges in establishing sustainable funding and governance models for the maintenance of open-source software.
According to interviewees from CSOs, citizens often lack trust in technologies, hindering adoption and effectiveness in citizen participation. This mistrust stems from negative past experiences, such as COVID QR scanning and lack of digital literacy. However, new technologies like ChatGPT are being adopted by citizens to articulate opinions, write proposals and engage with public administration, often outpacing official implementation.
Multiple-helix actors are also present in the Dutch context. Initiatives such as Digicampus or GovTech NL are at the junction of the quadruple helix: they combine public, private, civil society and academic approaches to co-create innovative and inclusive solutions to societal issues, such as embedding citizen participation in government through technology.
This project engaged university students through an in-person workshop in the Hague to understand the drivers and barriers they experience for citizen participation. Following the user-driven prototyping method from Digicampus, students were asked to identify the pain points of citizen participation and prototype a possible (digital) solution to solve the issue. Key issues highlighted were a lack of confidence to contribute on a topic due to lack of knowledge, the time commitment of participation, and a lack of awareness about participation opportunities.
2.3.3. Areas of opportunity for public authorities to enhance the use of emerging technology for citizen participation
Adopt a strategic direction and clear goals: Actors indicate a lack of strategic direction and continuity on citizen participation within the public administration. National levels of administration, such as BZK, could address this by establishing clear national objectives for innovation in citizen participation and quality standards for citizen participation processes, in particular using emerging technologies.
Set rules and standards for technology use: To address challenges concerning public trust in the use of technology by the administration, transparent guidelines and public education on the use of AI and algorithms in citizen participation processes, developed in partnership between the public administration and CSOs, could increase public awareness and acceptance on responsible and purpose-led technologies.
Enhance information flows and feedback loops: A lack of information and feedback loops on opportunities for citizen participation and the impact it has on decision making can dissuade public engagement. Systems to evaluate and clearly communicate the outcomes and impacts of citizen participation initiatives to citizens could address this. A clear evaluation framework and examples of good practice in citizen participation can ensure that initiatives are effective and inclusive, using networks like VNG and Kennisknooppunt Participatie to disseminate knowledge.
Build capacities and mindsets in the public administration: Actors identify a lack of capabilities on open collaboration, technology use and design of participation processes, and support in the public administration as barriers to innovation in citizen participation. Kennisknooppunt Participatie is intended to support the consolidation and sharing of knowledge and skills on participation.
Establish sustainable funding mechanisms and frameworks for collaboration: Actors mention challenges in establishing sustainable governance and funding models for initiatives. Framework agreements for engaging suppliers and the long-term maintenance and development of citizen participation platforms can facilitate collaboration and development across the ecosystem.
Strengthen and expand the ecosystem structure: Kennisknooppunt Participatie is developing a nation-wide network for knowledge sharing and could be supported to cover a broader range of citizen participation topics beyond the physical domain. GovTech NL is a collaborative initiative aiming to be the professional community for innovation of civic government and could prove an important hub to foster ecosystem’s capabilities through its supportive platform, programs and facilities for innovation and development of civic technologies.
← 1. Comparison across the three countries reveals five common categories of roles within innovation ecosystems for public participation:
1. Strategic Leadership and Governance covers the high-level roles that shape the overall direction and rules and expectations for public participation. These include setting strategic direction, regulation, funding, and impact assessment.
2. Operational Implementation includes the hands-on roles involved in executing participatory processes and managing the associated data. These include the facilitation of participatory processes, technical implementation, and data management.
3. Community Engagement and Representation focuses on the roles that directly interact with and represent citizens and communities. These include citizen engagement, advocacy and representation and trust-building.
4. Innovation and Knowledge Management encompasses roles related to developing new tools and approaches, creating, and disseminating knowledge, and building capacity among stakeholders. These include tool provision and development, innovation and experimentation, knowledge creation and capacity building.
5. Ecosystem Development addresses roles that focus on building connections between actors, sharing knowledge and experiences and expanding successful initiatives. These include network building and scaling and replication.