Education at a Glance 2026: France
Table of contents
This country note provides an overview of the key characteristics of the education system in France based on data from Education at a Glance 2026. In line with this year’s thematic focus, it emphasises teacher shortages while also covering other parts of the education system. The data in this note are provided for the latest available year. Readers interested in the reference years for the data should refer to the corresponding tables in Education at a Glance 2026.
Shortages of skilled workers have affected many sectors across the OECD in recent years, and the teaching profession is no exception. Teacher shortages manifest in different ways across education systems: in some countries, a lack of fully qualified teachers is reflected in a higher share of non-fully qualified staff, while in others a significant number of teaching positions remain unfilled.
Non-fully qualified teachers refer to teachers who do not yet meet all the requirements to be recognised as fully qualified teachers under national regulations. In most countries, they either possess the required academic qualifications but lack mandatory certification or teacher training, have completed the required teacher training but do not hold the required academic qualifications, or lack both. In France, this category corresponds to contract teachers who teach without holding civil-servant status, which is obtained by passing the national competitive recruitment examinations and corresponds to the definition of a fully qualified teacher used in international comparisons. In 2023/24, 7.1% of primary and secondary teachers in public institutions in France were not fully qualified. This proportion was below the OECD average of 9.1% (for 2024/25) (Figure 1).
Countries use two main approaches to measuring teacher shortages. The first approach estimates shortages before or at the start of the school year based on projected recruitment needs. The second approach measures shortages by counting the number of positions that remain vacant at the start of the school year or shortly after it begins. France uses the first approach. There was a shortage equivalent to 0.4% of all teaching positions in public institutions in secondary education at or before the start of the 2023/24 school year, one of the lowest proportions among the countries that provided data for this indicator (Table 2).
In per cent, full-time equivalents, public institutions
1. Year of reference differs from 2024/25: academic year 2023/24 for Denmark, Finland, France, Germany and Switzerland; calendar year 2024 for Chile and Costa Rica; calendar year 2025 for New Zealand; academic year 2025/26 for Japan.
2. Pre-primary and primary education are combined in France, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Upper secondary education is excluded in Denmark, Israel and Switzerland. Upper secondary vocational education is excluded in Finland, Hungary and the Netherlands.
3. Teacher data are based on headcounts instead of full-time equivalents.
4. Year of reference differs from 2017/18: academic year 2018/19 for Bulgaria, the Netherlands, and Switzerland; 2019/20 for Luxembourg and Poland; calendar year 2020 for New Zealand.
5. Including government-dependent private institutions.
6. Teachers classified as non-fully qualified in these countries are in the process of acquiring full qualification.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/b4968bbc-en, Figure 1 and Table 1.
Recruiting second-career teachers is a common strategy for addressing teacher shortages and helps to diversify the profile of the teaching workforce. According to the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2024, on average across the OECD, 8.4% of lower secondary teachers are second-career teachers; in France, they make up 5% of all lower secondary teachers (Table 5).
The attractiveness of the teaching profession depends on a variety of factors, including working conditions and salaries. According to the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), full-time teachers in primary, secondary and vocational education report working 40.8 hours per week on average across the OECD in 2023, compared with 41.5 hours for other full-time workers holding a bachelor’s or master’s qualification. In France, these full-time teachers report working 39.8 hours per week on average, while other full-time workers with a bachelor’s or master’s qualification report working 41.1 hours per week (Table 6).
According to the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2024, a large majority of lower secondary teachers (68.4%) are satisfied with their employment conditions (excluding salaries) on average across the OECD. In contrast, the share of lower secondary teachers who are satisfied with their salaries is much lower at 38.7% on average. In France, 58.7% of lower secondary teachers are satisfied with their terms of employment and 26.6% are satisfied with their salaries (Table 5).
Teachers tend to be older than other workers. On average across countries with available data, 25% of secondary teachers are aged 55 and over, compared to 19% of employed individuals holding at least a master’s degree and 21% of the overall employed population. France follows a similar pattern: 23% of secondary teachers are aged 55 and over, compared to 6% of employed individuals holding at least a master’s degree and 20% of the overall employed population (Figure 10).
High teacher turnover can indicate dissatisfaction with the profession, but the number of teachers in public institutions who leave the profession is also shaped by factors such as the age structure of the workforce, labour-market conditions and the professional culture of a country. In France, only 1.9% of fully qualified primary and secondary teachers left the profession (through retirement or resignation), compared with an OECD average of 6.4% in 2024/25 (data refers to 2023/24 in France) (Table 3).
Educational attainment remains at an all-time high in 2025 as more people obtain advanced qualifications. Across the OECD, 43% of working-age adults (25-64 year-olds) have a tertiary qualification, while the share of adults with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment is slightly lower at 39%. In France, the share of adults with tertiary attainment is similar to the OECD average at 45%, while the share of adults with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment is also similar to the OECD average at 40% (Table A1.1).
The share of young adults without upper secondary attainment continues to decline across the OECD, standing at 12% in 2025. This trend is also apparent in France, where the share decreased from 13% to 10% between 2015 and 2025.
While more young adults obtain a tertiary qualification, the share of individuals whose highest qualification is upper secondary with a vocational orientation is decreasing in almost all OECD countries. This is also the case in France, where 37% of all 55-64 year-olds have upper secondary vocational attainment in 2025, compared to 26% of all 25-34 year-olds (Table A1.3).
Youth and young adults who are neither employed nor in education or training (NEET) are a key policy concern, as prolonged periods of inactivity at a young age can have lasting negative effects on socio-economic outcomes later in life. In France, 18% of 18-24 year-olds were in this situation in 2025, compared with 19% in 2015. By comparison, across OECD countries with available data for both years, the average proportion of young people not in employment, education or training (NEET) fell from 16% in 2015 to 13% in 2025 (Table A2.2).
Employment outcomes for recent tertiary graduates vary across countries and are shaped by economic conditions, labour demand, and public policy. In France, the unemployment rate among young adults with tertiary education fell from 8% in 2015 to 7% in 2025. On average across OECD countries with available data for both years, the corresponding rate declined from 7% in 2015 to 5% in 2025 (Figure 2).
In per cent of 25-34 year-olds in the labour force
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/b4968bbc-en, Figure A3.1.
The labour-market significance of advanced qualifications is also reflected in earnings. In almost every OECD country, workers (aged 25-64) without a tertiary qualification have earnings below the national average. In France, full-time, full-year workers with general upper secondary as their highest level of attainment earn 11% less than the national average, those with vocational upper secondary attainment earn 24% less and those with below upper secondary attainment earn 30% less. The corresponding wage gaps on average across the OECD are 13% for general upper secondary attainment, 17% for vocational upper secondary attainment and 31% for below upper secondary attainment (Figure A4.1).
As the demand for skills in the labour market changes, participation in lifelong learning is essential for all adults. According to the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), among employed adults, younger adults (aged 25-44) are more likely to participate in non-formal education or training than older adults (aged 45-64), but differences between the age groups are often small. In France, 45% of 25-44 year-olds had participated in non-formal education or training over the last 12 months, compared to 40% of 45-64 year-olds. Across the OECD, average participation rates are 52% among 25-44 year-olds and 45% among 45-64 year-olds (Figure A5.2).
Workers with higher educational attainment are much more likely to be in jobs where they can work from home in most countries. In France, 56% of tertiary-educated workers sometimes or usually work from home compared to 19% of workers with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment (Figure A6.3).
Participation in early childhood education and care (ECEC) is common among children from the age of 3 in all OECD countries. Pre-primary education is now compulsory from the age of 3 in France. Consequently, in 2024, 100% of children aged between 3 and the starting age of compulsory primary education - which is 6 in France- were enrolled in an early childhood education and care (ECEC) setting, compared with 90% on average across OECD countries (Figure B1.1). In addition, 66% of 2 year old children in France are enrolled in ECEC services outside the scope of education, such as programmes that primarily provide childcare, while another 10% are already enrolled in ISCED 02 (pre-primary education) (Table B1.1).
The number of primary and secondary schools – and thus their geographical proximity to students – varies across countries. Many countries have more primary than lower secondary schools, reflecting the desire to provide education close to primary students’ homes while offering secondary students the greater choice of specialist subjects that can only be provided by larger schools. This indicator reflects only the relative number of schools at each level and does not describe the organisation of local school networks or the transition between primary and lower secondary education. In France, there are 5 pre-primary and primary schools for every lower secondary school, a ratio well above the OECD average of 2 primary schools for every lower secondary school (Figure B2.4).
In most countries, there is no strong alignment between trends in the number of students and trends in the number of schools at lower secondary level. In France, the number of lower secondary students increased by 0.73% annually between 2015 and 2024, while the number of lower secondary schools increased by 0.06% annually over the same period. On average across the OECD, the number of students increased by 0.96%, while the number of schools decreased by 0.10%. These national averages may, however, mask substantial territorial differences. In France, declining enrolments in some areas have not always resulted in school closures, while population growth elsewhere has required the opening of new schools. (Figure B2.1).
The transition from upper secondary education to other programmes or the labour market is another important milestone in a student’s career. One year after the end of their upper secondary programme, 47% of students are enrolled in a bachelor’s or master’s degree programme in France, 32% are enrolled in a post-secondary non-tertiary or short-cycle tertiary programme, 0% are enrolled in another upper secondary or other type of programme and 22% are no longer enrolled in any education. In comparison, on average across countries with available data, 35% of upper secondary graduates are enrolled in a bachelor’s or master’s degree programme, 13% are enrolled in a post-secondary non-tertiary or short-cycle tertiary programme, 10% are enrolled in another upper secondary or other type of programme and 42% are no longer enrolled in education
International students are those who left their country of origin and moved to another country specifically to pursue a degree. National students (or domestic students) are those who are not internationally mobile. At tertiary level (ISCED 5-8), most OECD countries host a larger number of international students than they send abroad. On average across the OECD, outbound internationally mobile students account for 6% of all national students (whether enrolled domestically or abroad), while inbound students account for 12% of all students enrolled domestically in 2024. In France the share of outbound international students is 4%, while inbound international students average 10%. (Table B4.3).
In many countries, inbound mobility has increased faster than outbound mobility among tertiary students. On average across the OECD, the share of inbound mobile students increased by 4 percentage points between 2015 and 2024, while the share of outbound mobile students increased by 1 percentage point. In France, the share of inbound and outbound mobility remained the same. Morocco remained the main country of origin of inbound international students (12%), followed by Algeria (10%) and China (8%). Senegal entered the top five (5%), replacing Italy. For French students studying abroad, Canada became the leading destination (17%), ahead of Belgium (12%) and Spain (11%), replacing the United Kingdom among the top three destinations (Table B4.3).
Most expenditure on education comes from public sources. On average across the OECD, government expenditure on primary to tertiary education (based on initial funds, on educational institutions) corresponded to 4% of GDP in 2023, while private expenditure corresponded to 0.6%. In France, government expenditure equaled 4.5% of GDP in 2023, while private expenditure equaled 0.8% (Table C1.8).
In OECD countries with available data for both years, average government expenditure on primary to tertiary education (based on final funds, inside and outside educational institutions) has decreased slightly from 4.4% of GDP in 2015 to 4.2% in 2023. Over the same period, it decreased from 4.8% to 4.6% in France, thus mirroring the trend of declining government expenditure on education as a share of GDP (Figure 3).
Total expenditure on education (inside and outside of educational institutions); primary to tertiary education
1. Data include or exclude some categories, please refer to the source table for more information.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/b4968bbc-en, Figure C1.2 and Table C1.7 (web only).
Government expenditure on primary to tertiary education as share of GDP (based on final funds, on educational institutions, including R&D) varies by a factor of approximately two across OECD countries (ranging from 2.4% to 5.2%), while government expenditure per student varies by a factor of ten (from USD 3 398 to USD 32 832 adjusted for purchasing power parity) as differences in income levels mean nominal expenditure tends to vary more than relative expenditure.The calculation of education expenditure varies across countries. In 2023, average public expenditure per student from primary to tertiary education amounted to USD 13 601 across OECD countries, compared with USD 13 787 in France (Tables C1.4 and C1.1).
In early childhood education, government expenditure per child has grown substantially between 2015 and 2023 in many OECD countries. This was also the case in France, where expenditure per child aged 3-5 in 2023 was USD 10 523 compared to USD 9 130 in 2015 (Table C2.3).
Government expenditure on education tends to rise with the level of education. In primary education, expenditure per student was USD 11 565 in 2023 in France and USD 12 893 on average across the OECD. In lower secondary education, it was USD 13 471 in France and USD 14 291 on average across the OECD. Thus, France is among the majority of OECD countries where expenditure is higher at lower secondary level than at primary level (Table C3.1).
At upper secondary level, government expenditure per student can differ substantially between general and vocational programmes. Vocational programmes are often more expensive than general programmes due to the need for specialised technical equipment, while at the same time, private contributions, for example from firms, cover a larger share of overall costs in some countries. In France, expenditure per student is USD 16 674 in general upper secondary programmes and USD 15 638 in vocational upper secondary programmes, compared to the OECD average of USD 12 421 in general programmes and USD 13 901 in vocational ones (Table C4.1).
Government expenditure per student is the highest at bachelor’s and above levels despite being the levels where government expenditure accounts for the smallest share of total expenditure on average across the OECD. France is among the countries where government expenditure constitutes a larger share of total expenditure compared to the OECD average. Government expenditure per student was USD 16 560 in 2023, corresponding to 71% of total expenditure at bachelor’s and above levels. In comparison, average government expenditure per student across the OECD was USD 16 405, amounting to 68% of total expenditure (Table C5.1).
As discussed above, most countries have increased their investment in pre-primary education in recent years. This is also reflected in the ratio of children to teachers. Across the OECD, the number of children enrolled at this level decreased slightly by 2% between 2015 and 2024 while the number of teachers increased by 14%, resulting in a reduction in the ratio of children to teachers of 14%. In France, the number of children enrolled in pre-primary education decreased by 10%, while the number of pre-primary teachers also decreased by 1%, resulting in a decrease of the child-to-teacher ratio of 10% (Data for chart D2.1).
The number of teachers a system needs is not determined by student numbers alone. On average across the OECD, measured in full-time equivalents, the number of teachers in public and private primary schools rose by 13% between 2015 and 2024, even though the number of primary students rose by only 2% over the same period, a divergence driven by policy choices around class sizes, teachers’ working hours and instruction time. In France, the number of primary teachers increased by 6% over this period, while the number of students decreased by 4% (data refers to public institutions only in France and to year of reference 2016 instead of 2015) (Table 7).
According to several recent projections, student enrolment in France is expected to decline significantly over the next decade. If other policies remain unchanged, this demographic trend could reduce the demand for teachers while providing an opportunity to improve student-teacher ratios.
In most countries, salaries of teachers are lower than the salaries of other educated workers, especially for teachers at lower levels of education. This is also the case in France, where pre-primary teachers earned on average 18% less than other tertiary-educated workers, while lower secondary teachers earned on average 10% less than other tertiary-educated workers (Table D3.2).
Between 2015 and 2025, statutory salaries for both starting teachers and for teachers with 15 years of experience increased in most countries, and usually at a faster rate for starting salaries. In France, salaries of teachers with 15 years of experience (and most prevalent qualification – the CAPES for secondary education) decreased slightly (by 0.1 percentage point), but starting salaries increased by 7 percentage points (Figure D3.3).
In most countries, salaries of teachers in public institutions are lower than the salaries of other tertiary-educated workers, especially for teachers at lower levels of education. This is also the case in France, where pre-primary teachers earned on average 18% less than other tertiary-educated workers, while lower secondary teachers earned on average 10% less than other tertiary-educated workers (Table D3.2).
In 2025, school heads earn annually in France USD 68 050 at the pre-primary and primary levels, and USD 93 468 at the secondary level. This compares to OECD averages ranging from USD 93 468 at the primary level and USD 100 867 at the lower secondary level (the OECD average for pre-primary education is not available because data are available for too few countries). The comparatively low salaries of pre-primary and primary school heads in France largely reflect their employment status. Unlike lower secondary school heads, who belong to a distinct school leadership corps, primary school heads remain teachers who are relieved from part of their teaching duties and are paid according to the teacher salary scale, supplemented by a specific school-head allowance. As a result, the salary premium associated with leading a primary school is relatively limited compared to many other countries (Table D3.3).
Teachers spend only a fraction of their working time teaching; the remainder is devoted to other tasks, including lesson preparation and marking. On average across the OECD, primary teachers taught 770 hours per year compared to 710 hours per year in lower secondary education. In France, annual typical teaching hours were 900 in primary education and 720 in lower secondary education. Thus, France was among the large majority of countries where teachers in lower secondary education had to teach fewer hours than those in primary education (Figure 4).
In 2024, the ratio of full-time equivalent (FTE) teachers to total teacher headcount in secondary education was 0.95 for women and 0.96 for men in France, compared to OECD averages of 0.89 and 0.88, respectively. These comparatively high ratios indicate that teachers in France are more likely to work full time than on average across OECD countries (Table D5.3).
Net statutory teaching time in hours per year, in public institutions
Note: Please refer to the source table for information on whether the data refer to typical, minimum or maximum hours.
1. Actual teaching time (in Latvia except for pre-primary level).
2. Reference year differs from 2023. Refer to the source table for details.
3. Average planned teaching time in each school at the beginning of the school year.
For data, see OECD (2026) Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/b4968bbc-en, Figure D4.1 and Table D4.1.
Women form the majority of teachers at all levels of education except tertiary. Teachers in pre-primary education are almost entirely women with 96% of teachers being female on average across the OECD. The share of women among pre-primary teachers in France is slightly lower at 92%. At 65%, the share of female teachers in lower secondary education is lower, and it is below the OECD average of 68% (Table D5.1).
Across the OECD, women are more strongly represented among teachers than among school management staff. In primary education, women in France accounted for 85% of teachers and 69% of school management staff in 2024, a gap of 16 percentage points. This gap was similar to the OECD average of 15 percentage points (Figure D5.3).
Regular teacher appraisal as a quality assurance mechanism is common in some countries, but not in others. France uses an appraisal mechanism with mandatory appraisals of teachers, as do 16 out of 29 countries and economies with available data (Figure D7.1).
Appraisals of schools are more widespread than those of teachers, with school inspections being used in 24 out of 28 countries and economies with available data. France is among the majority of countries with a mandatory appraisal mechanism at primary or lower secondary levels (Figure D6.1).
Contact
For more information on Education at a Glance 2026 and to access the full set of indicators, see: https://doi.org/b4968bbc-en.
For more information on the methodology used during the data collection for each indicator, the references to the sources and the specific notes for each country, see Education at a Glance 2026: Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes, https://doi.org/b4968bbc-en.
For general information on the methodology, please refer to the OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264304444-en.
Updated data can be found on line at http://data-explorer.oecd.org/ and by following the StatLinks in the publication.
Explore, compare and visualise more data and analysis using the Education GPS: https://gpseducation.oecd.org/.
Questions can be directed to the Education at a Glance team at the OECD Directorate for Education and Skills: EDU.EAG@oecd.org.
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The full book is available in English: OECD (2026), Education at a Glance 2026: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/b4968bbc-en.
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