Developing Public Employment Services for Economically Inactive People in Poland

4. Policies to reach, engage and activate the economically inactive population in Poland

Abstract

This chapter sets out policy recommendations to enhance the capacity of the Polish Public Employment Services (PES) to engage and activate economically inactive individuals. It identifies two areas of intervention. First, the chapter outlines outreach strategies focused on strengthening inter-institutional cooperation and leveraging local actors to identify and contact individuals outside the labour force. Second, it proposes activation strategies tailored to the needs of specific target groups, including women, older workers, and people with disabilities. Finally, particular focus is given to adapting and expanding the current catalogue of PES services and active labour market policies, such as career counselling, psychological support, training, and vocational rehabilitation, to ensure they are accessible and relevant to the needs of those who have been out of the labour market for extended periods.

In Brief

Policies to reach, engage, and activate the economically inactive population in Poland

• With the implementation of the 2025 Act on Labour Market and Employment Services, economically inactive individuals have been formally added to the target group of the Polish Public Employment Services (PES). Prior to this reform, the PES served unemployed individuals eligible for unemployment benefits, as well as those not eligible for benefits but who voluntarily registered with the PES, so-called jobseekers, offering the latter limited access to services. The new Act expands the PES mandate to include the economically inactive, defined as individuals who are neither employed nor registered with the PES. However, labour offices currently lack systematic tools to identify, reach out to, or engage with this group. Existing activation services are also not designed to address the complex needs and overlapping employment barriers that economically inactive individuals often face.

• This chapter presents new strategies for the Polish PES to identify, reach, and activate the economically inactive population. For the PES to provide services to economically inactive individuals, whether in cooperation with external partners or independently, these individuals must first be registered. The first part of the chapter therefore explores outreach strategies and inter-institutional cooperation aimed at supporting the registration process. The second part focuses on tailored activation tools for economically inactive individuals once registered, emphasising the need for new activation programmes that consider their specific employment barriers.

• In the short term, collaboration with local partners could support the Polish Public Employment Services (PES) in reaching economically inactive groups and providing joint activation services. Local actors such as schools, social economy organisations and Social Assistance Offices (Ośrodki Pomocy Społecznej, OPS) could serve as partners in informing their beneficiaries about the support available through the PES. The PES could engage women with school-age children through local schools. Social economy organisations and OPS could play a similar role for other economically inactive groups and also act as joint service providers. For instance, across Poland, there are around 1 000 social enterprises whose objective is to reintegrate disadvantaged groups into the labour market. Among other services, OPS provide social and physical rehabilitation to their beneficiaries, who include approximately 4 percent of Poland’s economically inactive working-age population. Both the PES and OPS report to local governments which could facilitate cooperation agreements at the local level.

• In the long-term, Poland could work towards a systematic data exchange with the Social Insurance Institution (Zakład Ubezpieczeń Społecznych - ZUS) to scale up the registration of economically inactive people. The Social Insurance Institution holds personal data of individuals receiving disability-related benefits and early retirement benefits as well as of women on childcare-related leaves. As these groups are often disconnected from the labour market, strengthening data exchange mechanisms between ZUS and the PES could support the identification of economically inactive individuals. On gaining access to relevant data from ZUS, the labour offices could reach out directly to selected individuals who could benefit from PES services.

• General activation measures targeting a broad range of economically inactive individuals could include programmes aimed at strengthening psychological resilience and rebuilding soft skills needed in the workplace. The Polish PES could begin by implementing activation strategies that address common barriers to labour market participation among the economically inactive, such as mental health challenges and low self-confidence. Socio-psychological counselling could be integrated into existing individual and group services offered by the PES. In addition, soft skills training such as workshops on communication, teamwork, and time management could support newly registered clients in preparing for job interviews and successful workplace integration.

• Group-specific services that assess and strengthen the functional capacities of individuals with health-related challenges could complement the general activation strategies of the Polish PES. The PES could introduce work ability assessments for clients facing health issues to determine their functional capacities in a work context. Based on the assessment results, vocational rehabilitation services such as physiotherapy or occupational therapy could be offered through contracts with social economy organisations, local governments, or healthcare providers. While individuals with a certified disability would likely be among the main beneficiaries of these services, the assessments could also be made available to a broader group of PES clients.

• Mentoring schemes and short-term work opportunities designed with local community networks could support the activation of economically inactive groups around the statutory retirement age. Activation of older inactive individuals requires strong employer engagement, as many may need to change careers or acquire new skills to re-enter the labour market. Dedicated programmes based on individualised career guidance and employer-led mentoring could be designed in partnership with local firms. In parallel, the PES could target individuals above the statutory retirement age to promote longer working lives. Community-based initiatives involving social economy organisations, employers, and the local government could match retirees willing to work with short-term, low-intensity jobs, supporting their employment and social inclusion.

• Group-based returner programmes could support women without caregiving responsibilities for young children in re-entering the labour market. Economically inactive women could take part in returner programmes to increase their readiness for labour market re-entry. The programmes could rely on cohort-based training, to foster mutual support among participants. As part of the initiatives, PES clients could access counselling on career planning, confidence-building workshops and networking sessions with local employers to gain skills and deepen their understanding of the local labour market.

Introduction

A growing number of Public Employment Services (PES) across the OECD are expanding their focus to include economically inactive individuals. Traditionally, PES have targeted the registered unemployed, but persistently tight labour markets, a declining number of jobseekers, and changing demographics have prompted a shift towards engaging the economically inactive, defined as those who are neither in employment nor registered with PES as unemployed. Between 2013 and 2023, the unemployment rate among people aged 15 to 64 fell in all but two OECD countries, decreasing on average from 8.2 percent to 5.0 percent (see chapter Identifying and characterising groups of economically inactive people in Poland). Demographic trends have further reinforced the need to broaden the target group of PES. Across the OECD, the number of people aged 65 and over per 100 working-age individuals (20 to 64) is projected to double from 30 in 2020 to 60 in 2060 (OECD, 2024[1]). As a result, by 2023, around half of PES in Europe reported conducting outreach to inactive individuals not registered with employment services (Jakubowska et al., 2024[2]).

In Poland, a lack of systemic tools to identify and reach economically inactive individuals is a fundamental challenge for the Public Employment Services (PES). Currently, the Polish PES primarily interact with individuals who actively register with Powiat Labour Offices (Powiatowe Urzędy Pracy - PUP) as unemployed or as jobseekers. Large segments of the economically inactive population remain outside the reach of labour market institutions. While other public institutions, such as the Social Insurance Institution (Zakład Ubezpieczeń Społecznych - ZUS) or Social Assistance Offices (Ośrodki Pomocy Społecznej - OPS) maintain contact with economically inactive groups or hold relevant data on their characteristics, the PES has no formalised access to these resources. Thus, without data-sharing mechanisms and cooperation frameworks, the Polish PES is unable to proactively target those in need of activation support.

The current catalogue of activation services offered by the Polish PES does not address the multiple and complex needs of individuals who have been economically inactive. To date, the Polish PES has focused on individuals who self-registered with labour offices as unemployed or jobseekers (see Chapter: Capacity assessment of the Public Employment Services in Poland). Existing PES services are centred on job mediation and career counselling and were originally designed to support individuals experiencing short-term unemployment by matching them with available job opportunities. Economically inactive individuals often differ substantially from the traditional PES client base in terms of their socio-economic characteristics and labour market attachment. For instance, around 37% of the economically inactive population aged between 15 and 64 had completed only lower secondary or primary education in 2024 (Eurostat, 2024[3]), compared to 26% among the registered unemployed (Statistics Poland, 2024[4]). Many economically inactive individuals have been out of the labour force for extended periods or have no prior work experience. They are also more likely to report poor physical or mental health, live with disabilities, have care responsibilities, or reside in rural areas with limited access to economic hubs. For a large share of Poland’s economically inactive population, these barriers are interrelated and mutually reinforcing (see Chapter: Identifying and characterising groups of economically inactive people in Poland).

The remainder of this chapter examines outreach, inter-institutional cooperation, and activation strategies used by PES across OECD countries that take into account the employment barriers faced by different groups of economically inactive individuals and considers how these approaches could be introduced in Poland. The first section of this chapter focuses on strategies that could enable the PES to engage with target groups identified in the chapter Identifying and characterising groups of economically inactive people in Poland. These include people with disabilities, older individuals both below and above the statutory retirement age, and mothers who do not have care responsibilities for young children. The second section of this chapter discusses activation strategies that address the interconnected employment barriers faced by these groups, with particular attention to how such measures can be introduced within Poland’s existing institutional and legal framework.

Strategies to reach and engage economically inactive individuals through inter-institutional cooperation and outreach campaigns

The primary aim of outreach strategies and inter-institutional cooperation is to register economically inactive individuals with the PES, enabling them to access support and activation services. In the Polish system, support and activation measures can only begin once an individual is registered with the PES. As most economically inactive people are not eligible for unemployment benefits, the appropriate registration status will typically be that of a jobseeker, a PES client category used for individuals who cannot be classified as unemployed under Polish legislation (see chapter Capacity assessment of the Public Employment Services in Poland). Once registered as jobseekers, individuals can access a range of PES services, including job placement, counselling, and training or internship programmes.

Cooperation with external partners can also strengthen PES service delivery for new client groups. Collaborating with local actors, such as social economy organisations, enables the PES not only to reach economically inactive individuals who are not yet clients, but also to expand its service offer by leveraging the expertise of these partners. Collaboration with public institutions can likewise enhance the support provided to PES clients. For instance, working with social services such as the OPS can help the PES gain a deeper understanding of the needs of economically inactive individuals. Joint service delivery between the PES and OPS through the coordination of existing social and economic integration services could further expand the services offered to PES clients without the need to significantly expand in-house capacity.

This chapter presents strategies to reach and engage economically inactive individuals through inter-institutional cooperation and outreach campaigns, distinguishing between short- and long-term policies. Short-term measures refer to interventions that can be implemented immediately, utilising the existing resources and legal powers of the PES. In contrast, long-term strategies require systemic or legal changes, such as amendments to data access rules or the expansion of the PES service mandate. Importantly, the distinction between short- and long-term activities is not sequential. Short-term strategies can be maintained and scaled even as more structural reforms are introduced. Implemented jointly, the strategies to reach and engage economically inactive people could strengthen the PES’s ability to support those currently excluded from the labour market.

Partner with local Social Assistance Offices to identify economically inactive individuals across Poland and consider joint service provision

Effective strategies to engage economically inactive individuals require close cooperation between multiple institutions, particularly public employment and social services. Inactive individuals are disconnected from employment services and do not actively seek support to integrate into the labour market. Therefore, engaging economically inactive people requires a proactive approach from the PES and cooperation with actors and institutions that maintain established relationships with individuals facing complex barriers to employment (OECD, 2021[5]). These can include institutions involved in social assistance, healthcare, or community-building, the registers and networks of which can be utilised by PES to establish contact with economically inactive individuals.

In Poland, fostering such cooperation between the PES and OPS is essential for improving the reach and effectiveness of activation strategies, especially for those facing compounded barriers to employment. OPS can support the Polish PES in reaching out to the inactive population due to their registers and long-standing experience in addressing social exclusion. OPS support individuals affected by long-term economic inactivity, chronic illness, disability, or homelessness, offering services that range from out-of-work benefits for those who are ineligible for unemployment insurance, to social and physical rehabilitation, housing and childcare support, and individual counselling. In 2022, approximately 570 000 working-age individuals received social assistance from OPS, including 247 000 who were economically inactive. This group represents 4% of Poland’s total economically inactive population aged 15–64 (Tarnów Statistical Office, 2022[6]).1 Though small, this group remains in regular contact with public institutions, offering a direct channel for PES outreach. Among OPS beneficiaries, 59% were aged 45–64, and among men, 43% were aged between 55 and 64 (Tarnów Statistical Office, 2022[6]). Moreover, 76% of economically inactive OPS beneficiaries reported being in poor health, compared to just 17% across the general inactive population (Statistics Poland, 2021[7]). Among these, 72% furthermore only had primary, lower secondary or vocational education levels (Tarnów Statistical Office, 2022[6]).

Cooperation between the PES and the OPS is supported by Poland’s administrative and legal framework, but the inclusion of the economically inactive in formal cooperation agreements will require an update of Art. 198 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services. The PES and the OPS report to local governments, the powiat and the municipality (pol. gmina) level, respectively, rather than to the national government. This can facilitate coordination of joint initiatives between the institutions. The Act on Labour Market and Employment Services further establishes a legal basis for cooperation between the two institutions that allows local PES and OPS offices to sign formal cooperation agreements. Currently, cooperation agreements are limited to supporting the long-term unemployed, defined as individuals registered with the PES for more than 12 months within a two-year period (Art. 198 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services). Poland could consider extending the scope of these agreements to include economically inactive individuals. This could initially be trialled in a pilot project. Following the completion of the pilot and its evaluation, Article 198 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services could be amended to formally include economically inactive persons in joint PES–OPS programmes.

Intensified inter-institutional cooperation between the PES and OPS should be carefully planned and introduced in stages, beginning with stronger information exchange between institutions. The French experience provides a useful blueprint for this process (see Box 4.1.). Initial cooperation could begin with local pilot projects, allowing for experimentation and adaptation to local needs. Such pilots can be established through voluntary agreements at the municipality/powiat level. Once evaluated, successful approaches can be scaled up to the national level. At the national level, implementation could include the development of coordinated databases and protocols for information exchanges, along with exemplary models of cooperation between PES and social services.

Box 4.1. The reform process for setting up intensified cooperation between social services and employment services in France

Cooperation across employment and social services in France began with an experimental phase. After these initial efforts were considered successful, an agreement was signed in 2014 by three stakeholders: DGEFP (Délégation Générale à l’Emploi et à la Formation Professionnelle) representing the Government, ADF (Assemblée des Départements de France, head of the Departments network) for the local governments, and Pôle Emploi (now: France Travail), the French Public Employment Services (PES). The approach was further tested in the majority of Departments across the country with the use of the European Social Fund (ESF) funding, which covered half of the PES counsellors involved in the programme (500 counsellors out of 1 000).

The programme addressed three main issues: 1) the establishment of shared databases; 2) coordinated support, guidance and follow-up for activating social benefit recipients and jobseekers with complex social problems, delivered by a team composed of a social case worker and an employment counsellor; 3) a dedicated support and guidance scheme for PES-registered jobseekers facing social challenges that prevent them from seeking for a job.

An initial evaluation of the approach identified several challenges related to the specific cooperation model. First, despite a formal obligation to coordinate across authorities, services often remained siloed. For example, most meetings with jobseekers were held separately rather than as joint three-party interviews, largely due to scheduling difficulties among counsellors. This increased both the complexity of the process and the number of meetings jobseekers had to attend. Second, differences in professional culture across authorities sometimes led to imbalances in support, with employment assistance often taking precedence over social support. Third, the governance model resulted in significant variation in implementation across County Councils. Over time, steps have been taken to address these issues.

Initially, participation in the programme was voluntary for recipients of the minimum income scheme. However, a 2024 reform of the minimum income scheme (RSA) introduced an activation requirement, and RSA recipients are now required to register with the French Public Employment Service.

Source: Duell and Kaisergruber (2018[8]) Integrated Delivery of Social Services.

The first step in formalising the cooperation between the PES and OPS could be the signing of local cooperation agreements (pol. Porozumienie o współpracy). Local cooperation agreements, outlined in Art. 198 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services, can serve as a foundation for building structured, inter-institutional partnerships. As both the PUP and OPS operate under the authority of local governments, and not under direct control of the central Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy, inter-institutional cooperation can be established through agreements at the local level. Through such agreements, both sides could define the scope of their cooperation, outline their respective roles and responsibilities, and set the framework for the creation of inter-institutional teams. The teams could primarily consist of employment counsellors, career advisers, and social assistance workers, but may also include additional actors, depending on local needs, such as social economy organisations, educational institutions, or community-building organisations.

Local cooperation agreements could be used to identify potential PES clients among OPS beneficiaries. Following the establishment of a framework for cooperation, the teams could define target groups and operational procedures for identifying potential participants. Using their client network, the OPS staff could identify individuals who could benefit from activation services. Identification could be based on data held by OPS on the economic activity status of its beneficiaries. Once a potential PES client is identified, OPS staff could initiate contact on behalf of the PES to explain available services and invite the individual to an initial meeting. If the individual consents to participate in the initial session, they could be informed about how their personal data will be used and asked to sign a consent form compliant with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). Such a form would clearly state what data will be shared, with whom, and for what purpose. The local cooperation agreement could also address data governance issues, specifying which institutions serves as the data controller, and outlining the responsibilities of any data processors involved. Such safeguards will be essential for data minimisation and purpose limitation. In the long term, national legislation could be adapted to allow for automated data exchanges between PES and OPS, facilitating the outreach to the economically inactive.

To improve the collaboration between the PES and OPS, cooperation agreements could also include mutual learning opportunities. Limited awareness of each institution’s tools, available information and services could hinder the collaboration between the PES and the OPS. To address this, short-term exchange placements, such as internships between PES and OPS staff, could be introduced at the local level. These exchanges could allow social workers to better understand the role of employment services in improving life outcomes, while PES staff could become more familiar with the social challenges faced by economically inactive individuals.

By partnering with the OPS, the PES could further introduce joint service delivery to tailor activation services to the needs of the economically inactive. Local cooperation agreements could include not only outreach to the economically inactive population but also the provision of employment and social services. Joint provision of services could enable the institutions to respond to the multiple employment barriers faced by inactive individuals more holistically, offering social and economic activation services simultaneously (see chapter: Identifying and characterising groups of economically inactive people in Poland). Insights from previous collaborative initiatives between the PES and the OPS in Poland could inform the development of a joint service delivery model (see Box 4.2).

Box 4.2. Piloting cooperation between OPS and PES – the “Stop Schemes!” project in Poland

The “Stop Schemes!” project was a pilot initiative launched in 2014-2015, funded by the European Social Fund. It aimed to develop a coordinated system of institutional cooperation to support families at risk of social exclusion due to unemployment or long-term dependency on social assistance benefits. The pilots were implemented under cooperation agreements signed by local administration representatives legally responsible for the Public Employment Services (PES) and Social Assistance Offices (Ośrodki Pomocy Społecznej - OPS) (at the voivodeship, powiat and gmina levels). Other entities, such as higher education institutions or non-governmental organisations, could also sign the agreement if they offered activation tools to the project participants.

In each powiat in which the project was tested, 10 to 20 large families with three or more children gained access to new family activation tools such as joint cultural activities for the families or educational support for the children in a household, social integration and economic activation tools, provided jointly by the Powiat Labour Offices (Powiatowe Urzędy Pracy - PUP) and the local OPS. Each eligible family, defined as a large family with at least one unemployed parent receiving social assistance benefits, signed a family contract committing to participate in project activities for a period of four to seven months.

Two teams were established in each powiat to oversee and implement the initiative:

• Powiat Coordination Team: a team of ten members responsible for the overall strategy and coordination of resources between PES and OPS.

• Interdisciplinary Mobile Group: a team of ten members working directly with families, developing and implementing individualised activation plans.

Each family’s activation plan included an economic activation module, consisting of upskilling courses offered to adult family members. Social activation and integration tools were also used, such as sessions with psychologists and lawyers. A family module provided support to children, for example through extracurricular activities. Finally, a sports and culture module was also included.

Source: Centrum Rozwoju Zasobow Ludzkich (2015[9]) Model lokalnej interdyscyplinarnej współpracy na rzecz rodziny wielodzietnej. Podręcznik systemowy [Center for the Development of Human Resources, Model of Local Interdisciplinary Cooperation for the Benefit of Large Families: A System Manual].

Institutional partnerships for the joint delivery of employment and social services can be particularly effective in supporting the most vulnerable jobseekers, who often require comprehensive and coordinated assistance. A joint service delivery model for Poland could draw on approaches used in other OECD countries, where institutional cooperation forms the basis for reaching and activating individuals who remain outside the labour market. In France, for example, unemployed individuals facing social challenges such as homelessness or financial hardship receive intensive, coordinated support from employment and social counsellors working together (see Box 4.3). Similarly, Finland’s LAFOS system enables integrated service delivery for the long-term unemployed by coordinating efforts across PES, health, and social services, supported by structured information-sharing and jointly developed action plans (see Box 4.4). In Korea, Employment Welfare Plus Centres ensure comprehensive service provision through the strong collaboration between employment counsellors and social workers from different organisations (OECD, 2024[10]).

Box 4.3. Joint delivery of social end employment services in France

The Comprehensive Support programme (Accompagnement Global) is a co-ordinated programme provided by the French Public Employment Services (France Travail, formerly Pôle Emploi - PES) in co-operation with the County Council (Conseil departmental) which is in charge of the means-tested minimum income and social services. The programme targets the most vulnerable jobseekers who are not only unemployed but also struggle with other social challenges such as homelessness, health, or financial issues.

Within the programme, participants simultaneously receive support from an employment counsellor and a social counsellor, who regularly exchange information about the progress of the client. The decision to place individuals in the programme is taken by the PES and social counsellor in cooperation. In most cases, this decision is based on a number of bilateral interviews with the jobseeker undertaken by the PES and the County Council.

A key element of the programme is the provision of intensive and individualised support, with most participants meeting face-to-face with PES and/or social counsellors at least once a month. Cooperation between the PES and the County Councils relies on the ability of individual counsellors and managers to work together.

An evaluation of the programme was carried out in 2017 in partnership with 11 County Councils. Overall, the evaluation showed that one year after entering Comprehensive Support, more than half of the participants had secured employment. Around 43% had secured a job lasting more than a month, while 23% had obtained long-term employment. Moreover, the evaluation showed that the programme improved the ability of PES counsellors to identify social obstacles, a benefit considered relevant or very relevant by 85% of the counsellors surveyed.

Source: Pôle Emploi (2018[11]), “Éclairages et Synthèses: L’Accompagnement Global des Demandeurs d’Emploi: Une réponse adaptée aux bessoins d’un public particulièrement fragilisé” [Insights and Syntheses: The Global Support for Job Seekers: A tailored response to the needs of vulnerable], Pôle Emploi (2022[12]), L’Acommpagnement Global [The Global Support], OECD (2021[13]), "Building inclusive labour markets: Active labour market policies for the most vulnerable groups”.

Box 4.4. The Multi-Sector Joint Model for delivering integrated services to people in Finland who are out of work and face complex employment barriers

Introduced in 2004, the Multi-Sectoral Joint Service Model (LAFOS) in Finland integrates employment, social, and healthcare services to enhance employability. LAFOS is a collaboration between the Finnish Public Employment Services (Työ-ja elinkeinotoimisto - TE or PES), local social and health services, and the national social insurance institution. The main user group consists of long-term unemployed individuals who exhausted their unemployment benefit entitlements, i.e. people unemployed for over two years, and long-term recipients of social assistance.

LAFOS units have been going through major reform since the ratification of the 2015 Act on multi-sectoral joint service, also referred to as “New LAFOS”. New LAFOS is a permanent network bringing together PES services, municipal social and health services, and the social insurance institution’s vocational rehabilitation service. Services operate under a unified, binding framework. LAFOS caseworkers can access all PES schemes as well as basic health services provided by the municipalities. Other key differences between standard PES and LAFOS are the frequency and length of contact; LAFOS clients have more regular meetings with counsellors, and these can last up to ninety minutes. Additional services provided include support for social problems, referral to rehabilitation services, and assistance in finding suitable employment, training, or education.

For clients, participating in LAFOS involves the following steps:

• Access to LAFOS requires a referral, based on an assessment conducted by PES professionals or local social workers. Individuals become LAFOS clients when TE office staff or social workers determine that they require multi-professional support. The assessment considers the individual’s ability to work and overall life circumstances.

• New clients then receive an invitation letter from Labour Force Service Centres. During an initial individual appointment, LAFOS professionals develop tailored guidance, identify needed services, and establish an action plan. In this phase, TE professionals and social workers meet the new clients together to jointly assess their personal history, current situation, and expressed professional expectations. Since the entry into force of the TYP Act in 2015, clients no longer have the option to refuse participation if a need for multidisciplinary services is identified during this scoping phase. The type of support is jointly agreed on by the authorities and the client, and the resulting plan is signed by all parties involved.

• Depending on the client’s preferences, counselling services either begin with immediate training to support integration into employment or education or provide access to other support services that indirectly enhance employability. These non-employment-related services include substance-abuse treatment, psychiatric care, and maintenance therapy.

To support multi-dimensional service provision, the authorities maintain a joint register of clients’ personal data. While some essential information specified in the Act may be stored in this register without the client’s consent, some confidential information that is required for the provision of multisectoral joint services can only be obtained with clients’ consent.

LAFOS clients typically begin their employment pathway in the intermediate labour market through subsidised work placements. The primary goal of this approach is to provide temporary, paid work combined with skills training and personal development, thereby enhancing clients’ employability and preparing them for eventual transition into the open labour market.

Source: OECD (2019[14]), Investing in Youth: Finland, Investing in Youth, Nordic Center for Welfare and Social Issues (2016[15]), “Relationship between young people and welfare services”, Government of Finland (2014[16]), The Act on Multidisciplinary Joint Services Promoting Employment (1369/2014), in force from 1 January 2015 to 31 December 2024, Government of Finland (2025[17]), Currently valid Act on Multidisciplinary Promotion of Employment (381/2024), in force from 1 January 2025, Information provided by the Finnish Public Employment Service.

OPS beneficiaries identified for PES outreach could be offered tailored activation plans, jointly delivered by the PES and the OPS. Once an individual expressed interest in PES services, they could be presented with an offer to take part in the joint activation programme, provided by the PES and the OPS. As in the Finnish model, the primary target group could include individuals who have been supported by social services over extended periods, identified through an assessment of their work capacity and broader life circumstances. To access PES services, OPS beneficiaries would need to register with the PES as jobseekers. Conversely, PES clients such as single parents, long-term unemployed, or clients with health limitations, could be referred to OPS for complementary social activation support. Counsellors and social workers from both institutions would assess client needs jointly, using a holistic approach similar to that of Finland’s LAFOS model (see Box 4.4). Individual activation plans would combine the resources and expertise of both institutions, integrating employment support with socio-psychological counselling, rehabilitation services, and skills development. Clients could access services in parallel, with OPS covering non-employment-related support and the PES focusing on labour market integration. To support the long-term implementation of this cooperation model, local partnerships between the PES and OPS could include built-in feedback mechanisms, such as regular joint evaluations or participant interviews to assess satisfaction and improve service quality over time.

Reach and activate economically inactive groups through cooperation with local social economy actors

Structured cooperation between PES and social economy organisations can help PES reach economically inactive individuals and support their integration into the labour market. Social economy organisations, comprising associations, co-operatives, mutual societies, foundations, and social enterprises, pursue societal objectives rather than profit and often operate in close proximity to local communities (OECD (2023[18]); OECD (2023[19]); (OECD, 2022[20])). Their strong local presence and focus on inclusion make them valuable partners for the public sector, especially given their close contact with those furthest from the labour market. Some of these organisations actively create employment opportunities for vulnerable or marginalised groups who face significant barriers to work, while others provide labour market and social integration services (OECD, 2022[21]). Employment in the social economy tends to be resilient across business cycles, offering a stable entry point for individuals without recent work experience who may struggle to find similar stability in the mainstream private sector. Taken together, social economy actors can serve as partners in reaching and activating economically inactive individuals.

Poland has a dynamic landscape of social economy organisations that can serve as partners in engaging and activating economically inactive individuals. In Poland, the Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy (Ministerstwo Rodziny, Pracy i Polityki Społecznej - MRPiPS) is in charge of shaping and overseeing the social economy ecosystem. The country has a clear legal framework regulating the activities of social economy organisations, with the Act on Social Economy adopted in 2022 supporting the further development of this sector (OECD, 2023[22]). In 2022, more than 102 000 social economy organisations operated across the country, many of which were active in areas such as social services, education, healthcare, and local development (Statistics Poland, 2022[23]). While only a small share of these organisations identifies employment support as their primary mission, many provide services that are relevant to the identification and activation of economically inactive individuals. These include community engagement initiatives, socio-psychological counselling, and education and training opportunities (Statistics Poland, 2022[23]).

PES in Poland are required to cooperate with social economy organisations in identifying, reaching, and activating economically inactive individuals, a collaboration that could be formalised through local partnership agreements. Under the new Act on Labour Market and Employment Services, PES are obligated to engage with social economy actors either by contracting out activation measures or implementing them jointly. To operationalise this cooperation, PES could establish local partnerships with selected social economy organisations. As defined in Article 6, paragraph 2 of the Act, local partnerships provide a formal framework for collaboration, allowing PES to design and implement labour market programmes in cooperation with external stakeholders. These partnerships could serve the dual purpose of registering beneficiaries of services provided by social economy organisations as PES clients and jointly implementing tailored activation strategies.

In a first step, the PES could approach social economy organisations as trusted intermediaries that could share information about the PES offer with their beneficiaries. Local social economy organisations often work closely with local communities and have the trust of vulnerable population segments (OECD, 2022[21]; OECD, 2023[24]). Local economy organisations are therefore well-positioned to act as credible messengers of the PES offer. The PES could target social economy organisations that support economically inactive individuals to establish new communication channels for the WUP and PUP services. Potential partners include organisations providing social services (9% of all social economy organisations in 2022), education and care services (10%), local social and economic development (8%), or healthcare (4%) (Statistics Poland, 2022[23]). The PES could prepare communication materials for dissemination by these organisations or participate in joint outreach events with third-sector actors, thereby strengthening connections with economically inactive individuals.

As a second step, the PES could engage social enterprises as partners for job placement and activation services targeting economically inactive individuals. While they operate through different models, social enterprises share the objective of re-integrating disadvantaged groups into the labour market (OECD, 1999[25]). Categories of social enterprises in Poland include social cooperatives, entrepreneurial non-profit organisations, Vocational Development Centres (Zakłady Aktywności Zawodowej - ZAZ), non-profit companies, as well as limited liability companies and social religious entities (Cieplewska-Kowalik, 2020[26]; OECD, 2023[22]) (see Chapter: Capacity assessment of the Public Employment Services in Poland). These bodies often support individuals with disabilities or those at risk of social exclusion and can act as job placement partners for the PES. Some also provide vocational rehabilitation and social reintegration support that can help prepare economically inactive individuals for labour market entry. Since 2022, social economy organisations in Poland can apply for formal social enterprise status. As of 2025, over 1 000 entities had obtained it (Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy, 2025[27]). Among social enterprises, social cooperatives exhibit the strongest capacity to support and work closely with local institutions. Social cooperatives (pol. spółdzielnie socjalne), defined under the 2006 Act on Social Enterprises, are enterprises which support social and economic reintegration of people at risk of exclusion (Cieplewska-Kowalik, 2020[26]). At least 50% of a cooperative’s employees must come from disadvantaged groups. These bodies are also democratically governed and reinvest profits to sustain their operations and fund reintegration activities for their members. In 2025, 78% of them reported having collaborated with public institutions in the past, including local administrations (75%) (Statistics Poland, 2021[28]).

The outsourcing of some services that prepare the economically inactive for labour market entry could be done systematically, following international good practice. The Act on Labour Market and Employment Services outlines the conditions under which the PES can outsource employment-related services to social economy organisations. In particular, the PES may delegate responsibilities related to social reintegration (Art. 200), special programmes (Art. 209), pilot initiatives, or activation programmes for people with disabilities. These services can be commissioned under the Public Procurement Law (Prawo zamówień publicznych) and may include both economic and social activation activities. Service outsourcing can contribute to increasing PES capacity and provide services more cost-effectively (Langenbucher and Vodopivec, 2022[29]). Box 4.5 provides an example of systematic cooperation between the PES and social economy organisations in the Brussels-Capital Region of Belgium, where the regional PES Actiris and the Centres publics d’action sociale (local social assistance centres – CPAS) contract out some activation services on a needs basis.

Box 4.5. Contracting out employment and social integration services to social economy organisations in the Brussels-Capital Region, Belgium

In the Brussels-Capital Region, Actiris, the regional public employment service and the Centres publics d’action sociale (local social assistance centres – CPAS), contract out a wide range of employment and social integration services to social economy organisations. These organisations, such as local specialised counselling services, training providers, and work integration enterprises, support jobseekers and people receiving minimum income benefits through tailored programmes. Their services include job coaching, basic and vocational training, social activation, and placements into subsidised or supported employment. Actiris refers jobseekers to these providers as part of its activation strategies, while CPAS support minimum income recipients, including through work placements under subsidised contracts, commonly known in Belgium as “Article 60 jobs”.

The contracted providers are typically not-for-profit organisations operating at the local level. Some focus on labour market preparation through training and guidance, while others directly employ disadvantaged individuals as a pathway to reintegration. Work integration enterprises offer in-work training and temporary employment, while supported employment schemes target people with disabilities or with very high barriers to employment, including people recovering from addiction, or who were homeless. In addition, local job agencies (Agences Locales pour l’Emploi) create part-time community-based work opportunities for unemployed individuals. Together, Actiris, CPAS, and their partner organisations form a decentralised delivery system that offers a variety of activation pathways tailored to the needs of different groups.

The Brussels-Capital Region maintains two separate registration systems for social economy organisations: one for work integration social enterprises that hire people under special labour contracts, and another for organisations that provide contracted services without acting as employers. These functions are handled through distinct systems. Once registered in the systems, organisations can respond to calls for project proposals.

Source: OECD (2023[30]), Unleashing Talent in Brussels, Belgium.

Future cooperation between PES and social economy organisations can build on and expand existing initiatives already underway in some Polish regions. In some regions, PES and social economy organisations are already working together to implement labour market reintegration measures for disadvantaged jobseekers. In these joint efforts, social economy organisations provide services such as psychological support, group coaching, sheltered employment and long-term mentoring, helping to fill service gaps and extend outreach to individuals not actively engaged with the PES (see also Chapter: Capacity assessment of the Public Employment Services in Poland). Although these initiatives are often short-term and project-based, frequently funded by the European Social Fund (ESF) or the State Fund for the Rehabilitation of People with Disabilities (Państwowy Fundusz Rehabilitacji Osób Niepełnosprawnych - PFRON), they demonstrate strong potential for long-term, institutional partnerships between PES and social economy organisations. Box 4.6 describes selected existing regional initiatives from Poland in more detail.

Box 4.6. Social economy-led initiatives supporting the activation of economically inactive individuals in Poland

In Warmian-Masuria and Pomeranian voivodeships, social economy organisations are actively engaged in supporting economically inactive individuals. Their efforts target people with disabilities, the long-term unemployed, and those at risk of social exclusion, offering services that complement and extend those available through PES.

In the Warmian-Masuria region, the Warmian-Masurian Forum of People with Disabilities (Warmińsko-Mazurski Sejmik Osób Niepełnosprawnych - WMSON) has been operating an Activity Centre since 2015. The Centre aims to increase social and professional activity and upskill adults with disabilities by providing access to individualised social skills training, psychological support, group coaching sessions, and educational programmes. Additionally, WMSON has introduced a Supported Employment project, financed via the State Fund for the Rehabilitation of People with Disabilities (Państwowy Fundusz Rehabilitacji Osób Niepełnosprawnych - PFRON), in which participants are matched with employment coaches. The programme offers multi-phase support for people with disabilities, including psychological and vocational counselling, work trials, job coaching, and on-the-job support. Throughout each activity, the participants receive guidance from a personal employment coach.

In Pomerania, the Gdańsk Foundation for Social Innovation (Gdańska Fundacja Innowacji Spolecznej - GFIS) delivers an integrated support system for individuals struggling to return to the labour market. Between 2016 and 2023, the Foundation worked with the City of Gdańsk to provide social and economic activation services for economically inactive individuals and low-income workers, including migrants and refugees. Its social enterprises, including the SoStay Hotel and cafés led by the Foundation, served as platforms for internships and assisted employment, acting as a bridge from inactivity to full-time employment.

Source: WMSON (2022[31]), Zatrudnienie Wspomagane VII – rekrutacja do projektu [online] [Supported Employment VII – Project Recruitment], WMSON (2025[32]), Centrum Aktywnosci [Activity Center], Gdańska Fundacja Innowacji Spolecznej (2015[33]) Aktywizacja Spoleczno-Zawodowa [Social and Vocational Activation].

Conduct awareness raising and information sharing sessions in public places where inactive mothers could be reached

Targeted outreach to economically inactive women, particularly those who have left the labour market due to caregiving duties, requires adapting the existing PES approaches to settings where this group can be reached more effectively. Economically inactive women are not registered with the PES, and do not actively seek employment support, often due to limited time and lack of awareness of the resources on offer. Experience from Germany highlights that cooperation with community-based institutions can facilitate outreach to inactive women (see Box 4.7). The use of informal spaces and strategic partnerships can allow PES to connect with new, potential clients.

Box 4.7. Reaching out and engaging women after a child-rearing break at in Germany

In Germany, the Federal Employment Agency and its local offices engage individuals outside the labour force through a range of outreach activities. These include career guidance and vocational information provided at vocational information centres located on Public Employment Services (PES) premises, which are open to everyone, including non-registered clients. Additionally, PES staff offer vocational orientation in schools to further raise awareness and support career development.

Vocational Reintegration - Tapping into Potential

The programme “Vocational Reintegration – Tapping into Potential” (Perspektive Wiedereinstieg – Potenziale erschließen - PWE) was implemented from 2009 to 2021 with support from the European Social Fund. Led by the Federal Ministry for Family, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth in cooperation with the Federal Employment Service, the programme aimed to facilitate women’s return to work after family-related employment breaks. It provided support – mainly to mothers – through counselling, skills development, and activation activities. Additionally, the programme sought to raise employer awareness about the benefits of hiring women returning to the labour market.

After the conclusion of the PWE programme funded by the European Social Fund, the German PES has continued to support mothers returning to the workforce. Equal opportunity officers within the PES play a central role in coordinating and implementing activities that help women overcome employment barriers. These officers organise digital information events for individuals seeking to re-enter the labour market after periods of childcare or caregiving. To foster networking and peer support, the PES target locations with a high concentration of returnees, such as multi-generation houses and neighbourhood cafés.

Local PES offices also collaborate with chambers of commerce, associations, and external advice centres to reach individuals who are not registered with the PES. These partnerships help raise awareness of available support and motivate potential clients to re-enter the labour market. In addition, the PES offers a wide range of career guidance and re-entry counselling services, including online modules and blended learning opportunities, making support more accessible for women balancing family responsibilities

Tailored support for women at Jobcenter Leipzig

Jobcenter Leipzig, which supports individuals receiving means-tested minimum income, carries out targeted outreach and support activities for women – particularly those with caregiving responsibilities. These activities are financed through the general communication budget and implemented by employment counsellors, equal opportunities representatives, and other PES staff.

The Jobcenter recognises the unique challenges faced by women with caregiving responsibilities and provides tailored interventions to help them balance work and family life. These services include information on childcare options, support in finding employment with flexible working arrangements, and access to part-time vocational training opportunities.

In Leipzig, integrated counselling considers both family obligations and labour market requirements. Outreach is organised through family-friendly formats, such as information days and support meetings held at community hubs.

Source: OECD - EU (2024[34]), Seminar in Olsztyn, Duell and Pavlovaite / ECE (Forthcoming[35]) “Hidden potential – People outside of the labour force in the context of labour and skills shortages in the EU, Synthesis report”, the European Social Fund in Germany (2021[36]) Perspective Re-entry - developing potential, Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth (2025[37]), Return to Work.

In Poland, labour offices could first extend their cooperation with local schools to reach out to economically inactive women. Currently, the Polish PES cooperates with educational institutions, particularly secondary schools, to reach out to young people at risk of future unemployment (Smoter, 2022[38]). This cooperation can be extended to target economically inactive mothers, by establishing communication channels in kindergartens and primary schools. Through partnerships with these institutions, the PUP could organise regular information sessions, drop-in counselling points, or career workshops aimed at women who left the labour market to care for their children. Digital school registers (pol. dziennik elektroniczny), used for communication between schools and parents, could be used to promote such sessions, with schools disseminating promotional materials prepared by the PES. The PUP could be responsible for preparing promotional messages and fostering relations between the office and the local schools.

As a second step, the PUP could cooperate with schools and conduct information sessions on school grounds, bringing the PES closer to inactive women. A schedule of joint activities, such as information sessions or drop-in counselling points, could be developed in alignment with existing school events, for example the parent-teachers’ meetings (pol. zebrania rodziców). The events could be delivered free-of-charge to all interested parents. To comply with the GDPR, if a registration process is organised for the event, the educational partner would be responsible for managing it. The purpose would be to estimate the resources required for the session. The individual data would not be shared with the PES. To ensure consistency and impact, the sessions could focus on upskilling and reskilling opportunities rather than job placement, highlighting the instruments available at the PES that support skills development. Women who, after attending the sessions, express interest in taking further steps could then be invited to a follow-up appointment at the labour office, where their individual needs could be assessed in greater detail.

A complementary approach to reaching out to inactive women with children, particularly those in rural areas, involves cooperating with local social economy organisations and other community-level institutions. Organisations such as Rural Housewives’ Associations (pol. koła gospodyń wiejskich), local care centres and afterschool programmes often act as trusted intermediaries in rural and rural-urban areas. Rural Housewives’ Associations, which engage in community-building activities in rural areas by organising educational and cultural events with a goal of improving the living and working conditions of women, could serve as contact points (see Box 4.8). Regular outreach events hosted in community hubs, organised jointly with social economy organisations or childcare institutions could serve as low-threshold entry points for inactive women. Communication materials could be adapted to local needs, including the use of non-technical language and formats that suit the preferences of the target group. Where appropriate, mobile service points or follow-up visits from PES representatives could be planned to maintain contact with participants. Career counsellors, following preparatory training, could serve as facilitators of these events. To accommodate their participation, labour offices could assess whether their schedules and roles allow for field-based work.

Box 4.8. Rural Housewives’ Associations

Rural Housewives’ Associations (pol. koła gospodyń wiejskich) are organisations independent of national and subnational governments that support rural communities in Poland. According to the 2018 Act on the Rural Housewives’ Associations, only one such association can operate per village. They can also operate in village administrative units (pol. sołectwa) located within the administrative boundaries of towns and towns with up to 5 000 inhabitants. At least ten people are required to establish an association, and they must register in the National Register of Rural Housewives’ Associations, maintained by the Agency for Restructuring and Modernization of Agriculture. As of 2024, 16 320 Rural Housewives’ Associations operated in Poland (Central Economic Information Centre, 2024[39]). These bodies can obtain legal personality, conduct income-generating activities, and apply for grants.

The 2018 Act defines the goals of these associations, including:

• conducting social, educational, and cultural activities in rural communities;

• engaging in activities supporting the comprehensive development of rural areas;

• supporting the development of women's entrepreneurship;

• initiating and undertaking actions to improve the living and working conditions of women in rural areas;

• promoting and developing forms of cooperation, and responsible management of household finances;

• representing the interests of rural women before public administration bodies;

• fostering local and regional culture.

A study found that 59% of associations surveyed organised training or workshops, 48% conducted activities to improve the living and working conditions of women in the countryside, and 35% supported the development of women's entrepreneurship (Janowski, 2023[40]).

In 2022, Rural Housewives’ Associations collaborated with the Ministry of Digital Affairs to provide Information and Communication Technology (ICT) upskilling workshops for their members (Ministry of Digital Affairs, 2022[41]). The Ministry decided to focus on these associations as their members act as ambassadors within their communities. Among other initiatives, in 2023, women from the associations participated in a project organised by Hugo Kołłątaj University of Agriculture in Krakow and the Observatory for Regional Development and Cultural Heritage. The project offered training in forming cross-sectoral partnerships, interpersonal communication, as well as the basics of online commerce (Hugo Kołłątaj University of Agriculture, 2023[42]).

Source: Central Economic Information Centre (2024[39]), Rural Housewives’ Associations as of December 3, 2024., Hugo Kołłątaj University of Agriculture (2023[42]), Educational project for Rural Housewives’ Associations and Rural Entrepreneurship Creators, Janowski (2023[40]), “Study on the Condition, Needs and Problems of Regional Social Economy Entities on the Example of Rural Housewives’ Circles in Poland”, Ministry of Digital Affairs (2022[41]), Digital Rural Housewives’ Associations, Government of Poland (2018[43]) Act of 2018 on the Rural Housewive’s Associations.

To support the introduction of new outreach methods, training on working with economically inactive people in community settings could be provided to career counsellors by the WUP. Currently, only 1% of labour offices report the use of methods to engage with vulnerable populations in community settings (Smoter, 2022[38]). Engaging with women in schools and at events jointly organised with social economy organisations would require career counsellors (pol. doradcy zawodowi) to operate outside traditional office environments. A dedicated training programme could help prepare them for these additional tasks. The training could be organised regionally by the WUP under their statutory tasks, granted by the Article 32(1)(22) of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services. Modular workshops could be planned jointly with local universities that offer education programmes in social work (praca socjalna) and include elements such as:

• Understanding economic inactivity and social exclusion among women;

• Community level engagement strategies;

• Motivation and empowerment techniques;

• Ethics, dignity, and boundaries in outreach activities, including the obtainment of informed consent in data collection and processing.

The training could be supported by practical exercises guided by local social economy organisations, to help counsellors build confidence in interacting with potential clients. Economically inactive women may be unaware of PES services, or hesitant to engage with PES staff. All training modules could be designed to contain practice-focussed simulations and could be blended with in-field assignments. In-field assignments could be planned with local social economy organisations that work with economically inactive women. Debrief sessions following such on-the-ground experience could further facilitate reflection and the dissemination of new knowledge and experience.

Establish data exchange mechanisms between PES and ZUS to identify and contact inactive individuals

Identifying and reaching economically inactive individuals depends on the ability of the PES to access and use relevant data, which can be improved by introducing automated inter-institutional data exchange platforms. In Poland, improved data flows between the ZUS and Public Employment Services are key for identifying individuals belonging to the economically inactive population and organising outreach. ZUS holds personal information about the economically inactive population in Poland, including data on the number of people on disability-related benefits, women on childcare-related leaves, and individuals receiving early-retirement benefits. Thus, strengthening data exchange mechanisms between ZUS and PES would enable more targeted outreach and better-informed activation strategies.

Automated data exchange models such as Estonia’s X-Road offer a long-term vision for improving data flows and information exchange between public institutions in Poland. By enabling automated, role-based access to data for clearly defined purposes, the Estonian approach demonstrates how public institutions can coordinate their activities effectively while upholding data protection standards (see Box 4.9). In the Polish context, such a system could facilitate secure information exchange between ZUS and PES, allowing for the identification of ZUS clients who may benefit from economic activation support delivered by PES.

In Poland, two acts regulate the relations between PES and ZUS. The Act on Labour Market and Employment Services of 20 March 2025 outlines the instances where PES can receive data gathered by ZUS. Equivalent regulations, outlining when ZUS can share data with PES, can be found in the Act on the Social Insurance System of 13 October 1998 (pol. Ustawa z dnia 13 października 1998 r. o systemie ubezpieczeń społecznych).In Poland, a change in the legal framework would be required to facilitate secure data and information exchange. OECD countries such as Australia, Estonia and the United Kingdom have adopted different practices to meet the requirements of national data protection regulations (OECD, 2023[44]).

Identifying economically inactive individuals could be made possible if the scope of data shared by ZUS with the PES was expanded. The current regulations (Art. 50, para. 14 of the Act on the Social Insurance System; in the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services, the corresponding articles are art. 47, art. 48, and art. 53) specify the types of data that ZUS can share with the Regional and Powiat Labour Offices, on individuals registered with ZUS. These types include:

• Name and surname

• Date of birth

• PESEL (personal identification number)

• Citizenship

• Type of insurance with which an individual is covered

• Information pertaining to the length of payment of social contributions.

Data furthermore can be shared only if it is deemed indispensable for the fulfilment of tasks of public employment services (pol. w zakresie niezbędnym do realizacji zadań określonych w przepisach o promocji zatrudnienia). In practice, this qualification clause limits the ability of PES to use ZUS data, as the institution holds discretion over what it considers to be indispensable data and may deny a PES data request. Changing the ‘indispensability’ clause to signify that data is to be shared when needed for the fulfilment of tasks of the PES could set the basis for deeper cooperation between the two institutions.

For effective outreach to economically inactive individuals, new types of data could be specified under the Art. 50 of the Act on the Social Insurance System. ZUS can identify individuals who belong to three groups of the economically inactive. These include economically inactive individuals on early retirement benefits, those who are inactive due to health-related issues, and women who have had small children. To identify individuals belonging to these groups, ZUS could share the following information with the Polish PES:

• Type of childcare-related leave taken by the individual, either at the time of the inquiry or in the past, including maternity leave, parental leave, and childcare leave (pol. urlop macierzyński, urlop rodzicielski, urlop wychowawczy).

• Type of disability-related benefits granted to an individual, including supporting benefits, permanent benefits, incapacity benefits, social benefits, and sickness benefits. (pol. świadczenie wspierające, zasiłek stały, renta z tytułu niezdolności do pracy, renta socjalna, zasiłek chorobowy).

• Type of early retirement benefits granted to an individual, including miners’ pension, bridging pension, and teachers’ compensation benefits (pol. emerytura górnicza, emerytura pomostowa, nauczycielskie świadczenie kompensacyjne).

• Other types of data that can facilitate further activation of the economically inactive include individuals’ profession codes (pol. kod zawodu) from previous employment. The codes indicate the type of employment in which an individual has been employed, thus providing PES with information of the possible skills and competences an economically inactive person may have.

Box 4.9. X-Road and data exchange practices in Estonia

Estonia’s model for data integration, built by interlinking different databases in the X-Road system, is among the most advanced in the European Union. This model was introduced in 2011 and has been continuously expanded since then. The platform enables secure interlinking of data from 45 registries managed by various government agencies and ministries, including data on education, health, and welfare benefits linked to the ID Card of the individual.

When an individual contacts the Estonian Public Employment Services (PES), for example, to receive work-focused counselling, register as unemployed, request a work capacity assessment, or seek career guidance, data from various registries are consulted.

For unemployment registration, the PES primarily accesses data from public sector organisations to retrieve information on the individual's education, work experience, participation in the defence forces, and any established partial or full work capacity. In the context of Estonia’s work ability assessments (see Box 4.12), a person’s consent is required to access their health information. Even with consent, PES counsellors are limited to basic indicators, such as whether the individual had a medical visit in the past six months. More detailed health information can only be accessed by an authorised occupational doctor affiliated with the PES.

Source: E-Estonia (2025[45]) X-Road – interoperability services, OECD (2023[44]), Addressing the legal and IT challenges of data exchange to support contracted-out employment services in Sweden

The use of ZUS data for research purposes and to inform strategic planning at the regional level would not require access to personalised data. Where provided in anonymised or pseudonymised form, data could be used by Regional Labour Offices (Wojewódzkie Urzędy Pracy - WUP) to identify the sociodemographic profiles of economically inactive individuals within a given powiat or a region. These insights would allow PES to develop targeted activation strategies and allocate resources efficiently, while ZUS would not be expected to transfer personally identifiable data for communication purposes. Instead, efforts could first focus on establishing coordinated analytical routines and formalising data flows for research. Over the medium term, structured cooperation mechanisms could be developed for instance through regular consultations between the Forum of Regional Labour Office Directors and national ZUS representatives. These meetings could help define shared objectives, prepare joint outreach campaigns, and ensure consistency in interpreting data-sharing regulations.

Alongside the expansion of data provided by ZUS in an anonymised form, a functional automated system for data exchange could be developed, to streamline the PES outreach to ZUS clients. Establishing automated data exchange mechanisms between ZUS and PES will require a coordinated effort of multiple institutional stakeholders, to ensure the interoperability of databases. The stakeholders could include not only ZUS and the MRPiPS, overseeing the PES, but also the Ministry of Digital Affairs, the Chancellery of the Prime Minister (pol. Kancelaria Prezesa Rady Ministrów), and possibly the State Centre for Information Technology (pol. Centralny Ośrodek Informatyki) which delivers IT projects to the public administration. An interministerial working group could be established to define the legal, technical, and procedural foundations of the data exchange system. Such a group would guide the development of interoperable data management and data flow mechanisms, clarify the roles of data controllers and processors, and establish protocols for role-based access to specific datasets. The group would also oversee the integration of new data into existing case management systems, to ensure the compatibility of information transmitted from the ZUS registers to the digital infrastructure of PES, including the IT System for Labour Market and Social Service SYRIUSZ (pol. System Informatyczny Rynku Pracy i Usług Spłecznych - SYRIUSZ). Once automated systems are in place, the PES could use information that an individual is registered with ZUS, to initiate contact and encourage registrations with PES as a first step toward reactivation. The outreach could be conducted via phone calls, e-mails or traditional mail, with the initial message explaining opportunities available to potential PES clients. Then, interested individuals could be invited to a follow-up meeting with a career counsellor and to register them with the PES.

Building public trust will be critical for scaling up data exchange systems. Early-stage implementation could include the creation of advisory bodies, composed of stakeholders such as data protection experts, civil society organisations, and citizen representatives (Musidłowska, Wawrzyniak and Zygmuntowski, 2022[46]). These bodies could provide guidance on decisions on the types of data to be shared between the institutions and exchange mechanisms. In addition, public consultations could play a role in demonstrating how data exchanges between PES and ZUS could contribute to improving labour market policies and PES services for individuals currently outside of the labour market.

As the infrastructure develops, ensuring compliance with the GDPR will be essential.Much of the information held by ZUS, such as data on health-related benefits, disability status, or caregiving leaves, falls under the GDPR’s category of sensitive data, requiring heightened protection when stored and processed. According to the regulation, the processing of such data is generally prohibited, unless specific legal conditions are in place. For PES purposes, relevant legal base may include the explicit consent of the data subject, and the necessity of processing for the purpose of carrying out obligations in the field of employment, social security and social protection law (Art. 9 of the GDPR). Any data-sharing model would therefore need to be accompanied by clear data safeguards, establishing a clear purpose for data exchanges (Musidłowska, Wawrzyniak and Zygmuntowski, 2022[46]).

Once PES gain systemic access to relevant data from ZUS, the labour offices could begin directly reaching out to selected individuals who could benefit from PES support. The Polish PES, on gaining access to information on who has registered with ZUS, could invite such individuals to informational meetings with the PUP. During such a session, the individuals could receive information about available PES support and, if willing, register with the PUP as jobseekers. As such, women approaching the end of their childcare-related leaves could be invited to discuss part-time or flexible opportunities, as well as upskilling training. Individuals on health-related benefits could be offered tailored counselling or vocational rehabilitation services. Older individuals on early retirement benefits could be contacted with information on part-time work options or re-skilling courses. Target invitations could be delivered online or by traditional mail. Such an outreach could over time increase the number of the PUP registrations, improving labour market inclusion for groups at risk of long-term economic inactivity.

Activation strategies

Once economically inactive individuals are registered with the PES, tailored activation tools are needed to address their specific employment barriers. To date, Polish PES services have focused on individuals who self-registered as unemployed or jobseekers, providing job mediation and career counselling aimed at those experiencing short-term unemployment (see Chapter: Capacity assessment of the Public Employment Services in Poland). Economically inactive individuals differ from these traditional client groups. Many have limited or no work experience, are detached from the labour market over the long term, and are more likely to face poor health, disability, care responsibilities, or geographic isolation. These barriers are often interrelated and mutually reinforcing (see Chapter: Identifying and characterising groups of economically inactive people in Poland). To account for varying levels of employability, some PES in Europe use profiling systems based on artificial intelligence (AI) to classify jobseekers by their employability. The scope and intensity of support then vary by category, with individuals facing the greatest barriers receiving the most intensive services. Box 4.10 provides further detail on the use of AI-based profiling.

Box 4.10. PES use of AI-based profiling

Some Public Employment Services (PES) in Europe use profiling systems to assess the employability of jobseekers and to deliver employment services more efficiently. These tools typically classify jobseekers into three or four categories based on their employability and inform decisions on the type and intensity of support provided. Profiling systems are also sometimes used to assess individuals who were previously inactive, in which case prior inactivity considered as one of many variables that are used for the categorisation of the jobseeker (Desiere, Langenbucher and Struyven, 2019[47]). As of 2024, around seven PES in Europe use AI in profiling, and several others are in the process of integrating it into their systems (Brioscú et al., 2024[48]).

One example of an AI-powered profiling tool is OTT, used by the Estonian PES (EUIF). Developed between 2018 and 2020, OTT serves as a decision-support tool for counsellors and uses machine learning, specifically gradient boosting, to estimate a jobseeker’s likelihood of re-entering the labour market (Korniltsev, 2021[49]). The tool draws on approximately 60 variables, combining individual characteristics with broader labour market indicators, such as regional vacancy levels and the number of jobseekers. For each individual, OTT calculates the probability of finding employment, the risk of returning to unemployment, and the key factors influencing their labour market prospects (Leinuste, 2021[50]). This supports counsellors in determining the appropriate service channel (online, telephone or in-person), engagement frequency, and the most suitable activation measures. The tool plays a purely supporting role in decision-making; final decisions are not based solely on the model’s output.

OTT is updated with new training data every three months. One important input for system learning is feedback from employment counsellors on the relevance of the AI-generated profiling outcome. Counsellors are required to provide written feedback in the system, which is mandatory and can be submitted up to the 65th day of a jobseeker’s registration. (Leinuste, 2021[50]).

The ability of AI-based profiling to support decision-making by PES has also faced criticism when these tools are relied on too heavily. For instance, the Austrian PES came under scrutiny when a chatbot was accused of gender bias in providing training and career guidance to jobseekers (Schnitzer and Betcherman, 2025[51]). In response, some OECD countries such as France have developed robust legal and ethical framework, which includes clear guidelines, dedicated oversight bodies, and capacity-building efforts to ensure responsible use and internal expertise of AI use by the PES.

Source: Schnitzer, P. and G. Betcherman (2025[51]), AI in public employment services: Unlocking potential, avoiding pitfall, Brioscú, A. et al. (2024[48]), A new dawn for public employment services: Service delivery in the age of artificial intelligence, Korniltsev, V. (2021[49]), OTT – An AI-powered success story in the public sector, Leinuste, K. (2021[50]), Decision support tool „OTT“ for employment counsellors in the Estonian PES, Desiere, S., K. Langenbucher and L. Struyven (2019[47]), Statistical profiling in public employment services: An international comparison.

The activation strategies presented in this chapter are divided into short-term and long-term approaches, based on the ease of their implementation. Short-term activation strategies build upon the existing instruments available to the local and regional PES, MRPiPS, and other labour market actors. If introduced, they could allow PES to provide solutions adapted to the needs of the inactive population with immediate effect, including holistic socio-psychological services, peer support or vocational rehabilitation services. Long-term strategies, by contrast, require legislative changes to integrate the proposed activation strategies into the PES service offer.

Several activation measures targeting economically inactive people rely on strong relationships between the PES and local employers. Activation strategies, particularly those targeting older individuals and women, depend on establishing and maintaining relationships with local employers. For example, mentoring schemes for older workers, where senior professionals support jobseekers, require businesses' willingness to act as programme partners. Effective policies that build on strong employer engagement could also contribute to developing targeted training for older workers, implementing flexible working arrangements and facilitating job mobility (OECD, 2025[52]). Similarly, activation strategies for women, such as cohort-based programmes, depend on identifying supportive employers to facilitate upskilling or placement opportunities. Employer engagement strategies, as outlined in Chapter: PES strategies for employer engagement, can support PES in building these foundational relationships.

The activation strategies presented in this section can be divided into general measures for the economically inactive population and targeted interventions for specific sub-groups. Some strategies apply broadly and are relevant to all inactive and long-term unemployed individuals. For example, these include socio-psychological support and soft skills training that strengthen confidence, motivation, and workplace behaviour, forming the foundation for successful labour market integration. Other measures are tailored to specific groups, including women returning from childcare, older individuals and people with disabilities, identified as the main target groups in Chapter: Identifying and characterising groups of economically inactive people in Poland.

Introduce work ability assessments and vocational rehabilitation services to strengthen the holistic activation of PES clients

The economic activity rate of people with disabilities remains low, as legal barriers hinder the entry to the labour force for those individuals. Recipients of disability benefits are the largest group of the inactive in Poland, with approximately 770 000 people outside the labour force (see Chapter: Identifying and characterising groups of economically inactive people in Poland). In 2023, 38% of men and 28% of women between the ages of 16 and 89 with a mild degree of disability were economically active in Poland, while only 22% of those with a moderate degree of disability were in the labour force (Statistics Poland, 2023[53]). Only 5% of men and 3.5% of women with a severe degree of disability were economically active. The low activity rates are partially the result of legal limitations, as the level of earnings can impact the level of benefits received, a disincentive that is particularly relevant for those whose disability impacts their daily functioning significantly (see Box 4.11).

Box 4.11. Degrees of disability recognised in Poland

Formal recognition of the disability status for employment purposes in Poland is granted to individuals over 16, and categorised into three degrees of disability: mild, moderate, and severe.

A mild degree of disability status is granted to those individuals whose disability affects their ability to work considerably but who can function in everyday situations thanks to specialised equipment. They are thus able to work in workplaces that are adjusted to their physical or mental needs.

A moderate degree of disability status is granted to those who require partial assistance of other people in everyday tasks due to their disability. They are generally regarded as unable to work or able to work in sheltered employment conditions such as workers in Vocational Development Centres (Zakłady Aktywności Zawodowej – ZAZ).

A severe degree of disability status is granted to those who are unable to function on their own in everyday life and require permanent care. Individuals who fall into this category are generally regarded as unable to work, regardless of the workplace conditions.

Source: Office of the Government Plenipotentiary for Disabled People (2023[54]), Instytucje Orzekające - procedury orzekania, tryb i zasady [Adjudicating Institutions - adjudication procedures, process, and principles].

In Poland, the employment of people with disabilities is supported through wage subsidies through PFRON. Active labour market policies (ALMPs) for people with disabilities are funded and organised by PFRON, the State Fund for the Rehabilitation of People with Disabilities. While some initiatives are implemented in cooperation with the PES, many PFRON programmes are run independently. A key task of PFRON is the provision of wage subsidies for employees with disabilities. Employers are entitled to a monthly subsidy for the remuneration of employees with disabilities, ranging from PLN 500 to PLN 2 400 per worker, depending on the firm’s size and the worker’s degree of disability. These subsidies lower salary costs and aim to promote inclusive employment practices.

Additionally, PFRON commissions public institutions and non-governmental organisations to organise vocational and social rehabilitation for people with disabilities, although vocational rehabilitation comprises only a small portion of the funding, In 2022, only 4% of the total PFRON budget was allocated to vocational rehabilitation, with the vast majority (96%) spent on social rehabilitation (PFRON, 2022[55]). Social rehabilitation projects, often carried out by social economy organisations, focus primarily on children and youth, and include funding for therapy, rehabilitation equipment, and cultural or community-based activities. While important, these services do not directly support labour market entry or skills development of working-age adults with a disability. Vocational rehabilitation initiatives overseen by PES with PFRON funding currently include support for adapting workplaces and upskilling measures but remain limited in scale.

This section proposes two new tools that support closing the existing gap in activation strategies for people with disabilities in Poland. Although this group represents the largest share of the economically inactive population, people with disabilities currently receive insufficient targeted activation support. While financial incentives are available to employers, encouraging them to hire workers with disabilities, services such as vocational rehabilitation or tailored counselling remain limited. To address this gap, two new tools could be introduced by the Polish PES: work ability assessments and vocational rehabilitation programmes. Assessing individuals’ functional capacities through work ability assessments could enable PES staff to provide services better tailored to clients’ needs. Insights from these assessments could also guide clients towards vocational rehabilitation, supporting the restoration of their physical, psychological, and social capacities before entering the labour market.

Introduce work ability assessments for PES clients with a disability

Ensuring that the PES can support individuals with health-related barriers to employment requires an understanding of clients’ functional capacities. To assess the capacity to work of PES clients, work ability assessments can be implemented. Work ability assessments serve as a tool to evaluate an individual’s functional capacities and identify the support needed to re-enter or remain in the labour market as well as aid with the provision of disability or health-related benefits. Rather than focusing solely on medical diagnoses or benefit eligibility, they help define what a person can do and under what conditions. Based on the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), work ability assessments can help determine the extent and nature of support needed to return to work, while providing clients with a clearer understanding of their own capabilities. The model used in Estonia can serve as a valuable reference point. In Estonia, work ability assessments combine self-reporting with expert input, coordinated by a case manager within PES (see Box 4.12).

Box 4.12. Work ability assessment process in Estonia

In Estonia, applications for a work ability assessment can be made through different channels and may require the handling of the application by a case manager. The steps include:

1) Initial application stage

The application is initially based on a self-assessment and individuals’ health data, with health records accessed through Estonia’s e-health register. The e-health register is part of the country’s centrally managed data exchange platform which links different administrative registers, the so-called X-Road platform (see Box 4.9). The applicant should have had a medical visit within the past six months prior to the application; otherwise, the applicant might be required to consult a doctor. Applications can be submitted online or, for applicants experiencing difficulties with digital tools, through an interview with a case manager at the Public Employment Services (PES).

2) Interview and data gathering

The interview lasts approximately one hour, must be scheduled in advance, and can be conducted either in person or by phone, depending on the client's preference. Its purpose is to identify any limitations in performing specific work-related activities. With the client's consent, health data from the past five years are also reviewed.

Health limitations are assessed across seven domains: four types of physical limitations (mobility, hand and arm use, information transmission and reception, maintaining consciousness and self-care), as well as three types of mental limitations (learning and task execution, adapting to changes and recognising threats, and interpersonal interactions).

3) Assessment, verification and evaluation

After receiving the application, PES case managers and work ability assessment experts forward it to a medical specialist employed by the PES, who verifies its completeness and coherence. Once confirmed, the application is sent to a service provider under a procurement contract, where it is assigned to an expert doctor for evaluation and verification.

The service provider is required to employ at least one psychiatrist and one physician specialising in occupational or physical medicine/rehabilitation. The external expert doctor must have completed specific training in work ability assessment methodology provided by the University of Tartu. The expert doctor conducts the assessment and returns it to the PES.

In most cases, the assessment is based solely on documentation. An additional in-person assessment is only conducted if there are significant discrepancies in the health data or if contradictory information appears in the health information system. During in-person visits, various functional or psychological (objective) tests may be performed; however, this does not include making new medical diagnoses. The external expert doctor may also involve other specialists, such as clinical psychologists, physical therapists, speech therapists, or special education experts, as needed.

4) Expert opinion

The summary medical opinion includes the following:

• A description of limitations in functional capacity and the underlying disorders, organised by domain.

• A list of diagnosed diseases, classified at the ICD subchapter level.

• A summary of activities that are restricted.

• An assessment of the overall scope of work ability.

• A prognosis outlining the anticipated effects of treatment and the estimated duration of partial or full inability to work.

To determine the level of work ability, the expert considers the combined effects of restrictions across different domains, the course and frequency of the disease, the applicant’s self-assessment, adaptation, treatment effectiveness, awareness of their condition, and its impact on daily activities.

The results of the work ability assessment are then used to determine eligibility for the work ability allowance and vocational rehabilitation (see Box 4.13 for details).

Source: Information provided by the Estonian PES.

In Poland, a work ability assessment is conducted by ZUS, but its integration with the PES could prove difficult due to the divergence of such assessments’ objectives and limited institutional mandates. ZUS work ability assessments (pol. ocena niezdolności do pracy) are designed to determine eligibility for disability-related benefits and rehabilitation services, focusing primarily on establishing a person’s inability to work. Individuals undergoing these assessments are typically not seeking employment support. Rather, they apply for financial assistance due to health conditions that preclude them from working. Consequently, the goal of the ZUS work ability assessment is to certify clients’ incapacity to work and not to identify their potential for labour market participation, essential for activation-focused strategies. In addition, ZUS benefits are often conditional on the recipient’s engagement in salaried work. This reinforces the institution’s focus on providing compensation to people with a restricted ability to work, rather than on economic reintegration. Currently, there is no legal basis for the PES to refer clients to ZUS for a work ability assessment. Such institutional separation makes the use of ZUS assessments for economic activation purposes impractical in the short term. The PES could instead develop a simplified in-house work ability assessment tool, tailored towards economic activation.

Work ability assessments could be introduced as part of a psychological examination offered by the Polish PES to identify the strengths and needs of their clients. Work ability assessments comprise a comprehensive physical and mental health evaluation, to identify abilities in people with health-related limitations. Importantly, PES work ability assessments could be provided to all individuals with health-related barriers, regardless of their formal disability status. In Poland, the PUP could be responsible for the conduct of work ability assessments as part of their statutory tasks on providing medical and psychological examinations to PES clients. Under Art. 205 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services, the PUP can refer their clients to specialised psychological and medical examinations, to determine their ability to work and to take part in activation mechanisms. The work ability assessment could include an initial self-assessment of client’s abilities, with career counsellors directing individuals to the examinations. On‑site psychologists or contracted medical professionals could then be responsible for assessing the work ability level of PUP clients, based on the ICF. Such simplified work ability assessments could also be conducted regularly for each client to account for changes in their capacity to take on employment (OECD, 2021[56]).

Career counsellors could undergo training on the use of ICF in work ability assessments for the provision of individualised ALMPs. Training on the use of ICF for career counsellors could equip PES staff with a conceptual understanding and practical skills to utilise work ability assessments for the provision of individualised support to PES clients. The training could be organised by each WUP, as part of their statutory mandate under Article 32 para. 1(22) of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services. The curriculum could include a comparison between existing medical evaluations and the new activation-oriented assessments, practical exercises in applying the ICF to case studies, and workshops in interpreting assessment outcomes to identify relevant activation measures and prepare clients’ activation plans. Additional modules could cover referral processes to subsequent medical examinations or conducting structured interviews to guide clients through the work ability assessment process.

Following the assessment and potential medical examination, career counsellors could determine the level of the client’s work ability. Despite not having an impact on one’s eligibility for disability-related benefits – which remains the responsibility of ZUS – PES work ability assessments could offer a detailed understanding of a client’s health conditions. The results of PES work ability assessments could be delivered more quickly than formal disability assessments conducted by ZUS, which are typically subject to longer processing times. The outcomes of PES work ability assessment could be reviewed with a client during a counselling session, to define economic activation strategies, further psychological support, or physical rehabilitation. The work ability assessment could also support job placement by providing counsellors with an overview of the client’s physical abilities, allowing for better alignment with suitable job opportunities.

A self-assessment application could be based on the ICF to provide a comprehensive evaluation of capabilities and limitations. A work ability assessment form would cover various functional domains, including mobility, hand function, communication, self-care, learning and problem-solving, adaptability to change, and interpersonal relationships. To create an initial self-evaluation form for their clients, the Polish PES could draw on existing practices, particularly the ability categories included in the Estonian model (see Box 4.13). Experiences of the Central Institute for Job Security (Centralny Instytut Ochrony Pracy -CIOP) with ICF assessments can further inform the introduction of the new work ability tool within the Polish PES (see Box 4.14). The self-assessment form could be provided to the client digitally or physically, to be filled in at their convenience. In case a client needs support in completing the form, a phone call or in-person consultation could be scheduled with the client by the PUP career counsellor.

Box 4.13. Functional areas covered in ICF-based work ability assessments in Estonia

Work ability assessments based on the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) evaluate physical, cognitive, and social functioning that affects an individual's capacity to participate in the workforce. In Estonia, the following categories are used to assess work ability:

• Mobility: Assesses the ability to move across different surfaces, navigate safely, stand, and sit.

• Hand and Arm Use: Evaluates stretching, moving objects, fine motor skills, and other limitations related to hand and arm function.

• Transmitting and Receiving Information: Measures communication skills and the ability to understand information.

• Staying Conscious and Self-Care: Includes maintaining consciousness, as well as independently managing toileting, eating, and drinking.

• Learning and Performing Activities: Focuses on the ability to learn new tasks, initiate, carry out, and complete activities.

• Adapting to Changes and Recognising Threats: Assesses the capacity to go outside, recognise risks or threats, and adapt to changes.

• Interpersonal Interactions: Evaluates coping with social interactions and displaying appropriate behaviour.

• Influence of Addictive Substances and Adverse Drug Reactions: Considers the impact of substance use and negative reactions to medication.

Source: Ministry of Social Affairs in Estonia (2020[57]), Methodology for Assessment of Work Ability.

Box 4.14. Previous experience with ICF-based work ability assessments in Poland

In 2018, Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute (Centralny Instytut Ochrony Pracy – Państwowy Instytut Badawczy - CIOP-PIB), in cooperation with the State Fund for the Rehabilitation of People with Disabilities (Państwowy Fundusz Rehabilitacji Osób Niepełnosprawnych - PFRON), conducted a study to explore the use of International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) in assessing individuals' work ability. The primary objective was to test the feasibility of integrating ICF into the Polish health system, rather than assessing its direct applicability in vocational rehabilitation or disability benefits decisions.

Although the study primarily focused on guiding patients in recovery or provide health recommendations to people with disabilities and chronic health conditions, its findings offer insights for the Polish PES. These include the use of clear, measurable objectives to evaluate functional abilities and the implementation of a multidisciplinary assessment model, where individuals were evaluated by a general practitioner, psychologist, and career counsellor before inter-institutional teams developed tailored recommendations.

Source: Bugajska, J. (2018[58]), “Zastosowanie Klasyfikacji ICF do oceny zdolności do pracy” [Applying the ICF Classification in the Work Ability Assessments].

While a full integration of ZUS and future PES work ability assessments is unlikely to be feasible in the short term, steps could be taken to increase cooperation between the two bodies in the long term. Currently, ZUS assessments focus on certifying disability and determining eligibility for disability benefits, with an emphasis on confirming incapacity for work. This contrasts with the activation-oriented goals of the PES, where a work ability assessment would identify an individual’s remaining work capacity and potential for employment. As a result, the two systems operate on different principles and cannot be merged easily. However, the existing expertise of ZUS certifying doctors could inform and support the implementation of PES work ability assessments. In a first step, following the work ability assessments conducted by medical professionals through PES referrals, ZUS certifying doctors could be consulted if additional expertise on assessing individuals’ work capacity is needed. Consultations with ZUS certifying doctors could be initiated by medical professionals such as GPs or psychologist contracted through the PUP, when they encounter cases requiring additional expertise in work capacity assessments. If a client’s functional capacities require clarification, the PUP may require an additional medical examination, financed by the PES under Article 205 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services. Such cases could include complex or overlapping health conditions, discrepancies between the medical documentation and the client’s self-assessment, or if there are reasons to believe a client may qualify for disability benefits. In the long-term, ICF-based assessments for economic activation purposes could be fully supervised by ZUS certifying doctors. A direct mechanism for referring PES clients to ZUS could be created, so that the ZUS certifying doctors with experience in assessing one’s capacity for work could oversee the PES work ability assessment service and provide evaluations using clients’ self-assessments and through medical documentation submitted to ZUS. To ensure the effectiveness of this cooperation, a regular feedback mechanism between the PES and ZUS could be established to monitor assessment outcome and refine referral processes over time.

On the basis of work ability assessments, define vocational rehabilitation needs and provide vocational rehabilitation to PES clients

Following a work ability assessment, individuals with reduced capacity to work could be offered vocational rehabilitation services. Work ability assessments could guide career counsellors in offering individualised economic activation services to PES clients, including vocational rehabilitation. Vocational rehabilitation services offer additional support that is not directly employment related to individuals outside of the labour market. These services can help with rebuilding physical, psychological, and social capacities needed to participate in the labour market. To enhance the effectiveness of this type of support, early intervention is essential to shorten the duration of inactivity and raise the motivation of participants (OECD, 2022[59]). International examples of effective vocational rehabilitation within PES include Estonia, where PES case managers coordinate assignments of PES clients to vocational rehabilitation, and interdisciplinary teams deliver this service, based on an individualised action plan (see Box 4.15). In Poland, vocational rehabilitation could initially be introduced under the ministerial activation programme for persons with disabilities and their caregivers2, outlined in the new Act on Labour Market and Employment Services. The Act allows for the contracting of relevant services by the PUP. The ministerial activation programme could provide PES with an opportunity to cooperate with social economy entities and local government entities such as healthcare providers, to implement a holistic vocational rehabilitation service for their clients with disabilities. If successful, the approach could be included in the larger catalogue of PES services, by expanding the scope of activities permitted under Article 205 which covers the financing of medical and psychological assessments by PES.

Box 4.15. The provision of vocational rehabilitation services in Estonia

Once a work ability assessment has been conducted (see Box 4.12), the need for vocational rehabilitation can be evaluated, particularly for individuals with reduced or no work ability. The information gathered during the work ability assessment, including the self-assessment and medically confirmed limitations, is used as the basis for this process. In addition, a Public Employment Services (PES) case manager can conduct a needs-assessment using a questionnaire consisting of 15 questions that are based on the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF).

Sample questions include:

• In the past 30 days, how much difficulty did you have in searching for a job?

• In the past 30 days, how much difficulty did you have in going to work and performing your work-related tasks?

• To what extent do you receive support from your employer/supervisor?

• To what extent do you receive support from colleagues or classmates?

• In the past 30 days, how much difficulty did you have in education and knowledge acquisition?

The responsibilities of the case manager include the following:

• Understanding the client's complex needs: Assessing the main barriers, the complexity of the situation, and whether involvement from different rehabilitation specialists is necessary.

• Supporting and developing the client's motivation and readiness: Evaluating the client's initial motivation to make changes in their work or personal life and providing support to strengthen it.

• Identifying the client’s goals: Determining whether the client's goals are related to employment, health recovery, or both.

• Explaining the rehabilitation process and next steps: Outlining the steps involved in rehabilitation and what to expect.

• Coordinating with other stakeholders: Facilitating collaboration with relevant stakeholders based on the client’s specific needs.

• Deciding on referrals: Working with the client to determine if vocational rehabilitation or another suitable labour market service is appropriate.

• Referring to healthcare or social services: Directing the client to the appropriate healthcare or social services when necessary.

If vocational rehabilitation is considered necessary, the client selects a service provider from a network of 90 partners located across different regions in Estonia. The available budget for vocational rehabilitation is EUR 2 500 per calendar year. The service typically lasts for 12 months and may be renewed if needed.

Vocational rehabilitation is delivered through an interdisciplinary approach, involving a range of professionals, including social workers, psychologists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, art therapists, peer counsellors, speech therapists, doctors, and nurses. As part of the service, a functional assessment and a goal-setting exercise are conducted to outline both the desired outcomes and the client’s personal objectives for the next 10 months. The Brief ICF Core Set for vocational rehabilitation serves as the mandatory framework for this process.

Within 40 working days, the assessment is followed by an action plan that includes the main goals, subgoals, ICF codes, and qualifiers. This plan is then communicated to the PES.

Peer support services for workers with health issues

The Estonian PES also provides peer support services aimed at individuals with partial or no work ability, as well as those employed with health issues or on long-term sick leave. Peer support offers emotional, social, and practical assistance shared by individuals who have similar disabilities or health conditions.

The service can be accessed for up to ten hours per calendar year, and beneficiaries can choose a qualified peer support provider from the list available on the PES website.

Source: Information provided by Estonian PES.

Under current Polish law, vocational rehabilitation services are not a standard service offered by the PES. Vocational rehabilitation services are organised through ZUS and PFRON-funded initiatives. Access to these services is typically delivered through short-term projects by local social economy organisations contracted by PFRON, resulting in uneven service availability across Polish regions. Vocational rehabilitation is currently not prioritised, with only 4% of total PFRON funds allocated to this goal (PFRON, 2022[55]). As vocational rehabilitation services often require high financial resources, this low funding share is unlikely to address the needs of people with disabilities effectively. Additionally, individuals with reduced work capacity who do not meet the formal criteria for disability status are often excluded from rehabilitation services, despite facing health-related barriers to employment. A complementary form of vocational rehabilitation provided by the Polish PES would address these gaps.

The Polish PES could adopt a two-step model for the introduction of vocational rehabilitation services, with an initial implementation of ministerial activation programmes for persons with disabilities and a subsequent updating of the PES service catalogue. To implement vocational rehabilitation services in the short term, ministerial activation programmes for persons with disabilities, defined in Articles 212 – 214 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services, led by the MRPiPS, could be utilised. Under a ministerial activation programme for persons with disabilities, the Ministry can launch a national call for proposals, defining the programme’s operational principles, objectives, and types of eligible services to be financed. Following the call, eligible institutions including the PUP could submit project applications. The PUP applying under the call could structure its proposal around expanding support for clients with a reduced work ability. The application could outline the planned development of service delivery, including direct provision of counselling and peer support related to vocational rehabilitation, and procurement of specialised services such as physiotherapy or occupational therapy, through public tenders or contracts. The Ministry would then evaluate the proposals, and commit funding to the initiative, introducing an innovative vocational rehabilitation delivery model.

To improve the effectiveness of ministerial activation programmes, the eligibility criteria for beneficiaries and the range of eligible implementing partners could be expanded. Current legal provisions restrict participation in ministerial programmes to individuals with formally recognised disability status. This condition excludes those with health-related, but not formally recognised, barriers to employment from benefiting from these programmes. Expanding eligibility to include individuals with reduced work ability, determined, for example, through the PES-led work ability assessments, could allow for support to be offered on a wider scale. Furthermore, Article 212 para. 5 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services limits the types of institutions that can implement ministerial programmes for people with disabilities. The list includes the PES, the OHP, local administrations, employment agencies, and social economy entities. Medical entities are not explicitly mentioned, despite their potential role in delivering vocational rehabilitation. Amending this article to include medical institutions could thus ensure provision of more comprehensive programmes for people with disabilities.

In the long term, vocational rehabilitation services could be integrated into the standard catalogue of the PUP services by amending Article 205 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services. Article 205 of the new Act enables the PUP to refer their clients to medical and psychological assessments, to determine their ability to work and participate in activation measures. Updating the article would include expanding its scope to explicitly include vocational rehabilitation, allowing labour offices to outsource rehabilitation services of their clients. This would ensure continuity of support between the initial work ability assessment and the actual intervention.

In parallel to the development of vocational rehabilitation services, the PUP could introduce peer support elements within the existing framework of group counselling. Group counselling sessions, already part of the existing PES offer, could be expanded to include group workshops focused on equipping jobseekers with strategies to manage work-related stress. Such workshops could help participants manage anxiety related to returning to work, rebuild daily routines, and adjust to new work environments, using group discussion and shared experiences to build motivation and confidence of PES clients. Individuals who previously benefited from PES support – such as those completing internships, upskilling courses, or short-term employment placements – could be engaged as peer mentors, leading the discussions alongside career counsellors. The Estonian PES, where individuals with similar health conditions engage in knowledge and experience-sharing as part of the PES activation strategy can serve as an example (see Box 4.15). By matching experienced clients with new participants based on shared characteristics, group counselling sessions would not only provide practical knowledge and emotional support to newcomers but also serve as a form of peer assessment and empowerment for former clients.

Develop comprehensive socio-psychological services, including soft skills training, for those who have been out of the labour market for an extended period

Extended periods outside the labour market can cause the deterioration of confidence and soft skills, which in turn hinder the effectiveness of economic activation strategies. Individuals experiencing prolonged joblessness sometimes face reduced self-confidence and a diminished sense of agency. Focus group interviews conducted as part of the project confirm findings in the academic literature that show the struggle with social isolation, a decline in social skills and difficulties in adjusting to labour market realities among those who experienced prolonged periods of economic inactivity (Ruzik-Sierdzinska et al., 2023[60]).

Introduce targeted socio-psychological counselling for individuals coming out of economic inactivity

Socio-psychological support measures can help in addressing challenges related to the deterioration of confidence and soft skills. The Estonian model of socio-psychological services acts as a practical example, where PES offer outsourced psycho-social counselling services to jobseekers (see Box 4.16). While Estonia’s socio-psychological services are not exclusively delivered to its economically inactive population, adopting a similar model in Poland would allow the PUP to offer targeted psychological support to individuals who face persistent challenges to labour market reintegration that can complement vocational rehabilitation measures. In addition to rehabilitation services focused on restoring one’s capacity to work, socio-psychological services can address the underlying mental health, motivation or confidence issues that act as barriers to employment for economically inactive.

Box 4.16. Psychological counselling for jobseekers in need of support in Estonia

The Estonian Public Employment Services (PES) offer psycho-social guidance to people who have registered as unemployed and to employees who have received a redundancy notice. This service is outsourced to a certified external provider. Eligible individuals registered by the PES can access up to ten hours of psycho-social counselling per year. A list of certified partner organisations is available on the website of the Estonian PES, from which individuals can choose their preferred provider.

The outsourcing of psychological counselling services is regulated through cooperation principles which determine the target group, the content, scope, and processes of services provided, and operational guidelines related to facilities, financing, and pricing. Service providers can be legal entities, local government institutions, or self-employed professionals.

Professional requirements of those providing the service depend on the nature of the counselling. In general, a psychologist providing counselling must hold a master’s degree in psychology or possess a psychologist-counsellor qualification (at ISCED level 7), along with at least 720 calendar days of work experience in individual psychological counselling.

Other complementary counselling services such as debt counselling or addiction counselling exist as part of the offer in Estonia. A debt counsellor is required to have a higher education degree in law or hold a debt counsellor qualification (corresponding to ISCED level 6) and must also have at least 720 calendar days of relevant work experience as a counsellor, debt counsellor, financial counsellor, or legal advisor, dealing directly with clients on debt-related issues. The role of addiction counsellors is to support jobseekers or workers struggling with addiction by identifying underlying issues and helping clients focus on searching for a job or maintaining employment. The addiction counsellor assists individuals in analysing the root causes of their addiction, finding strategies for long-term coping, and mapping out appropriate treatment and other support options.

Source: Information obtained from the Estonian PES.

Access to socio-psychological support for individuals coming out of economic inactivity could be developed as part of the existing group and individual counselling services offered by the PUP. Under Article 87 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services, career counselling consists of assisting clients in developing competences strengths, and skills through the support of diagnostic methods and standardised tools. Article 87, para. 5, further allows the PUP to outsource this service to external specialists, in cases where the in-house expertise is insufficient, providing a legal basis for outsourcing socio-psychological counselling services. To ensure quality and consistency, these services could be delivered by certified external partners, identified through formal public procurement procedures. For each region, the WUP could establish a list of certified providers, in cooperation with the PUP. Entry criteria could be based on the providers’ professional qualifications and prior work experience, following those introduced by the Estonian PES described in Box 4.16. Clients requiring psychological support could be referred to certified providers by PUP career counsellors, following an initial assessment of employment barriers. The referral could specify the number of counselling hours initially granted, with the possibility of extension based on the client's progress and needs. Counselling sessions could be structured around employability-related goals, focusing on strengthening resilience, coping mechanisms, and job-search readiness.

To provide effective referrals to external socio-psychological support services, additional training for PES counsellors could be introduced to equip PES staff with skills essential for the initial assessment of their clients’ barriers. Effective referrals depend on the PES staff’s ability to detect possible mental health issues, confidence issues, or other motivational barriers in their clients. To gain skills necessary to recognise those in need of deeper socio-psychological support, a training programme for the chosen powiat career counsellors could be introduced. The programme could build on the German example of modular intensive counselling training, where PES staff receive counselling training as part of their induction (see Box 4.17). If possible, powiat career counsellors could be supported by in-house psychologists in the PUP. An in-house psychologist could advise the career counsellors on dealing with individuals in need of psychological support and could act as a first point of contact for clients requiring more immediate mental health services.

Box 4.17. Intensive counselling and coaching training in Germany

Staff of the German PES (Federal Employment Agency – BA) undergo extensive training in counselling theory and techniques as part of their induction when joining the PES.

A nationwide standardised training framework known as the "counselling concept" (BeKo) is implemented in employment agencies, which are responsible for jobseekers, some employed individuals at risk of dismissal, and unemployment benefit recipients, and job centres, which are in charge of recipients of minimum income.

Developed by the BA, BeKo defines the principles of counselling in the areas of education, career development, employment, and social inclusion within the legal framework of employment agencies and job centres.

Training Structure

The training programme consists of four modules, each lasting three to four days, designed to build on participants' existing experience:

• Counselling Tasks: Covers the characteristics and definition of counselling, fundamentals of professional counselling, quality standards, the counselling concept, counselling processes, methods and techniques, principles of action, and understanding of roles.

• Counselling Concept: Focuses on role reflection, body language, systemic thinking, goal setting and structure, methods and techniques, and conversation simulations.

• Integration Support Counselling: Emphasises the structured counselling phases described above.

• Special Counselling Situations: Includes the exchange of experiences, conversation simulations for individual and group cases, orientation and decision-making, managing resistance in counselling, and understanding the importance of motivation.

• Additional Modules: Further modules cover training on intercultural competences for counselling, counselling for entire households of minimum income recipients, and qualification modules for managers of counsellors, designed to support the role of team leaders.

Training Delivery and Cost

The sessions are delivered by the BA's own trainers, with participation costs ranging from EUR 400 to 700 per module per participant.

Source: Information provided by the Jobcentre Leipzig.

To ensure the approach is standardised, the training could be developed at the regional level and overseen by the WUP. Building on the structures proposed for the delivery of job advocacy training (see Chapter: Employer engagement), the WUP could coordinate the delivery and content of the programmes, targeting selected counsellors in the PUP. The training could cover the basics of psychological needs assessment, including how to recognise signs of low mental well-being, lack of motivation, or social isolation. A key component of the training could also relate to increasing counsellors’ awareness that employment barriers differ across target groups, such as older jobseekers, women returning to the labour market, or individuals with health limitations, and that referrals ought to be tailored to them accordingly. Drawing on the German model described in Box 4.17, the programme could last from 12 to 16 days and could be provided as part of induction training or as a continuous training to PES counsellors. The training modules could include practical classes on counselling techniques, setting goals with clients or approaching resistance. Specific focus could be place on when and how to refer a client to external socio-psychological support The outlined approach would ensure that the PUP staff is a competent first point of contact and that referrals to certified providers are consistent and aligned with the client’s individual needs.

Previously inactive individuals could be prioritised for the external socio-psychological support. On returning to the labour market, economically inactive individuals face combined employment challenges, often underlined by low self-esteem and mental health issues (see chapter: Identifying and characterising groups of economically inactive people in Poland). As such, these PUP clients could require psychological support prior to the engagement in ALMPs. To ensure that activation of the previously inactive individuals is successful, the PUP could thus prioritise this group for the delivery of external socio-psychological counselling.

To make sure the provision of socio-psychological services can be implemented by the PUP, legal provisions could be strengthened in the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services. An update to Article 205 of the Act (2025) could expand the existing provisions, allowing the PUP to order not only psychological examinations for their clients, but also finance long-term psychological counselling and therapy as part of their activation support measures. This additional legal basis would formalise the role of socio-psychological services within the broader framework of ALMPs.

Introduce soft skills training as part of the activation measures for economically inactive individuals

As success during job interviews and work retention depend on the ability to adapt to a workplace, strengthening the soft skills of economically inactive individuals is indispensable for their effective return to the labour market. Soft skills key to succeed in job interviews and at a new workplace include stress resilience, communication skills, and the ability to function in a team. Those who remained economically inactive for extended periods may lack such skills, and as a result struggle in new social situations (Ruzik-Sierdzinska et al., 2023[60]). PES activation strategies could strengthen their clients’ soft skills. Countries such as France have successfully introduced soft skills training for jobseekers. In France, soft skills training has complemented socio-psychological services provided to the most vulnerable jobseekers by equipping them with skills foundational to dealing with a new workplace environment. Soft skill training is provided alongside other counselling services (see Box 4.18).

Box 4.18.  Soft skills training for jobseekers in France

Soft skills are increasingly sought by employers when posting a vacancy and recruiting new staff, they help jobseekers in succeeding in stressful job interviews and enhance workplace adaptability. In response, the French Public Employment Service (France Travail) launched the “Enhance your professional image” (Valoriser son image pro) programme in 2018.

Modular courses are offered to groups of eight to ten jobseekers over a period of one to two weeks. The objective is to help participants identify and showcase their professional soft skills, including stress management, consensus building, and communication abilities. Participants also learn how to present these skills effectively to potential employers during the recruitment process.

The soft skill training programme is structured into four phases:

• Initial group meeting: introduction of the training programme, soft skills assessment and debrief.

• Group work during five business days: role plays, mock interviews, and other exercises.

• Optional two-day group session: focused on specific soft skills, such as self-affirmation and stress management. This component is mandatory for long-term unemployed.

• Final one-on-one meeting: soft skills re-assessment and debrief.

Since its launch, 320 000 jobseekers have participated in this programme. On average, participants were 47 years old, had 12 years of education, nine years of work experience, and had been unemployed for 336 days. The cost is EUR 850 per participant.

The programme was evaluated from April 2023 to July 2024 using baseline and endline survey data from three waves of participants and a control group of non-participants. The endline survey was conducted seven to nine months after the baseline and four to six months after the training. The evaluation found that participants were more likely to secure higher-quality jobs compared to non-participants with similar profiles.

Source: Guadelupe, Roth and Roulet (2025[61]), Soft Skills, Unemployment and Job Search, France Travail (2025[62]), Valoriser son image pro.

In Poland, the PUP could organise soft skills training as part of the ALMPs specified in the Act on Labour Market and Public Employment Services. Under Art. 87 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services, career counselling organised by PES can be delivered via training sessions, equipping PES clients with skills for effective job-seeking. Additionally, Article 99 of the Act authorises the financing of training programmes for the unemployed and jobseekers to equip them with knowledge, skills, or qualifications that would improve their employability. In this context, soft skills can be understood as skills that are both needed during the job search and to cope and thrive in a professional work environment.

The PUP could implement short, group-based training, especially for clients who have previously been long-term unemployed or economically inactive. The programme could be offered to newly registered PES clients who are coming out of a period of economic inactivity or long-term unemployment. The modular course could be delivered by career counsellors to small groups, following the French example described in Box 4.18. If required, the delivery of courses could be supported by external providers, an option explicitly outlined in Art. 87 para. 5 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services. Individuals with similar backgrounds could be grouped together, to enhance the peer support element of the workshops. The main training modules could include communication, teamwork, and self-organisation. Finally, the scope of the training could be coordinated at national level during the meetings of the Forum of WUP Directors, with the Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy acting as a coordinating authority that disseminates national guidelines in close coordination with the WUP.

Cooperate with local stakeholders to identify employment opportunities available for older workers and early retirees

Older individuals constitute a significant share of the economically inactive population in Poland. Despite demographic pressures to boost labour market participation, both the statutory and effective retirement age in Poland remain low. As a result, early retirees represent a significant share among Poland’s economically inactive population. (see Chapter: Identifying and characterising groups of economically inactive people in Poland). This group is predominantly composed of men who previously worked in physically demanding or hazardous sectors, often retiring between the ages of 50 and 55.

Early retirement schemes deter labour market re-entry as engaging in paid work can lead to a reduction or suspension of the early retirement benefits. The Polish law permits combining pensions with paid work only within certain limits. A person entitled to an early pension can continue working but their additional income can impact the level of early retirement benefits. If the income exceeds 70% of the average monthly salary in Poland (PLN 5 036.50, as of 1 December 2023), early retirement benefits are reduced gradually. up to an income exceeding 130% of the average monthly salary in Poland (PLN 9 353.50 as of 1 December 2023), at which level early retirement payments are suspended entirely. The earning limits become non-binding once a person reaches the statutory retirement age. A recent tax exemption for working pensioners introduced in 2022 aims to incentivise pensioners above statutory retirement age to continue working, exempting income up to PLN 85 500 (EUR 19 800) from personal income tax, on top of the standard tax-free amount of PLN 30 000 (EUR 6 950). The exemption applies to income from employment, commissioned tasks, and business activities (Ministry of Finance, 2023[63]). While these new incentives aim to retain older individuals in the labour force, the trend of early labour market exits persists in Poland.

To date, PES strategies for older individuals have often been limited in scope and mostly included short-term measures. The PUP offers wage subsidies to employers who hire unemployed individuals over 50 years old. These subsidies are granted for 12 months for older unemployed under the age of 60 and for 24 months for those over the age of 60. Employers can receive up to 50% of the minimum monthly salary for each worker employed under this scheme. When the subsidy period has ended, employers are required to continue employing the individual for at least half the duration of the subsidy period (Government of Poland, 2004[64]). In addition, the new Act on Labour Market and Employment Services introduces further financial incentives. Under Art. 262, employers who hire individuals over the age of 50 who are registered as unemployed are exempt from paying contributions to the Labour Fund, a state-operated fund that finances unemployment benefits and vocational activation programmes, for these employees for a 12-month period.

Under the previous legal framework, the PUP prioritised supporting individuals over the age of 50 in ALMPs, but these measures often had only short-term effects on economic activation. The annulled Act on Employment Promotion and Public Employment Services of 2004 provided a framework for PES to organise sheltered employment (pol. prace interwencyjne) opportunities targeting older PES clients. However, these initiatives were typically short-term temporary programmes (see Chapter: Capacity assessment of the Public Employment Services in Poland). In contrast, upskilling initiatives like internships or training programmes offered by the PUP had a stronger focus on younger individuals. Participants under the age of 30 could take part in internships for up to 12 months, while those for individuals aged above 30 were limited to 6 months (Government of Poland, 2004[64]). Although upskilling programmes were formally open to all registered unemployed, only those without any professional qualifications could access them for up to 12 months. Since older workers were more likely to have some level of qualifications, their participation in such programmes was typically limited to half this period. Efforts to engage those close to retirement age, as well as recent retirees, have been made through local pilot projects, but such initiatives have not yet been scaled up or mainstreamed across the Polish PES (see Box 4.19). The new Act on Labour Market and Employment Services addresses some of these limitations by increasing the maximum duration of training available to all unemployed to 12 months, creating opportunities for greater engagement with older jobseekers.

Box 4.19. Pilot programmes as tools for economic activation of older individuals

Pilot programmes in Warsaw have been organised to target the needs of older unemployed individuals and jobseekers, addressing the issue of age-based discrimination in the labour market.

In 2022, the Warsaw Labour Office (the PUP in the city of Warsaw) launched a pilot programme titled “A good worker has no age” (Dobry pracownik nie ma wieku). The initiative targeted people who had reached the retirement age but wished to continue working. The 10-month project supported 150 pensioners, offering a range of services including internships, digital skills training, vocational courses, and sheltered employment. Most participants were between 60 and 70 years old, with 82% falling within this age range. As a result of the project, 57 pensioners found employment, 31 participated in internships, 85 gained new digital skills, and 26 completed vocational courses.

Source: Warsaw Labour Office (2023[65]), Projekt Dobry Pracownik Nie ma Wieku [The Good Employee Has No Age Project]

Mobilise local employer networks to introduce dedicated support programmes for older individuals, based on career guidance and employer-led mentoring

Employers’ reluctance to hire older individuals may hamper their chances on the labour market. Focus group interviews carried out with older economically inactive individuals identified negative perceptions of older workers as an obstacle to employment which, as a result, limits job opportunities for this group (see Chapter: Identifying and characterising groups of economically inactive people in Poland). Many felt undervalued by employers, who are said to favour younger candidates, who they perceive as more flexible and willing to learn. Although evidence from focus groups is suggestive, experimental studies across the OECD indicate a lower willingness among employers to hire older workers (Benedick Jr, Brown and Wall, 1999[66]; Cebola, dos Santos and Dionisio, 2023[67]). These findings underline the need to not only improve services for older jobseekers, but to actively engage with employers to motivate them to hire and retain older workers and to reduce age discrimination (OECD, 2025[52]).

Activation programmes for older individuals should be closely aligned with employer engagement strategies. As outlined in Chapter: PES strategies for employer engagement, employer engagement strategies form the foundation for implementing new, targeted activation programmes. Job advocacy training for PES staff could equip employer counsellors with skills to challenge age-related stereotypes among local employers. Benefits of hiring and training older workers could also be promoted, as updating workers’ skills can raise the employer’s productivity and support employee retention (OECD, 2023[68]). Furthermore, offering age management counselling to small and medium-sized companies could encourage more frequent cooperation with the PES and help employers recognise the long-term value of inclusive hiring practices. Building on these efforts, activation strategies for older individuals could then be rooted in strong, trust-based partnerships between PES and local stakeholders such as employers, business associations or trade unions, to jointly identify opportunities tailored to older workers’ needs.

International examples highlight the importance of such employer-based approaches for supporting older PES clients. For instance, in Switzerland, cantonal PES offer a range of services dedicated to older workers, which complements their advocacy for the employment of older individuals with local employers (see Box 4.20). Similarly, in Germany, the Perspektive 50+ programme demonstrated the effectiveness of regional employment pacts, which involve a wide range of local partners, for increasing the activity rate of older individuals (see Box 4.21). Drawing on these practices, the Polish PES could seek to strengthen local cooperations to involve employers in the development of activation strategies for older jobseekers.

Box 4.20. The Viamia and Impuls programmes in Switzerland

Over the past decade, Switzerland implemented two programmes to support the employment of older workers - the Viamia and Impuls programmes.

Viamia

On 15 May 2019, the Federal Council of Switzerland adopted a package of measures to promote the employment of older workers. As part of this, the Council supported the 26 cantons in establishing a free skills assessment and counselling service for adults aged 40 and over. This service, called Viamia, was piloted in eleven cantons in 2021 and has been available nationwide since January 2022. In parallel, the Federal Council accelerated efforts to recognise prior learning in basic vocational training.

To raise awareness of age discrimination, a brochure was published online, presenting key facts and practical examples for retaining and reintegrating older workers, particularly in SMEs.

The Viamia programme is delivered by the cantonal career guidance services and is co-financed by the Confederation (80%) and the cantons (20%). Until 2024, the Confederation committed CHF 3.2 million (EUR 3.4 million) to support the establishment of required structures at the cantonal level.

Impuls

Between 2020-2024, the Confederation financed cantonal initiatives through the Impuls programme, which aimed to improve the labour market integration of hard-to-place groups, with a specific focus on older workers. The Confederation provided financial assistance of approximately EUR 200 million (187.4 million) to the unemployment insurance compensation fund for the implementation of cantonal projects. Notable cantons initiatives under this programme include:

• Bern's Mentoring Programme: Bern offers a mentoring programme for jobseekers aged 50 and over, providing approximately six months of mentoring outside the local Public Employment Service (PES), known as the office régional de placement (ORP). The project establishes a partner network of mentors from employer associations, the private sector, and administrative units of the Confederation and cantons. Mentors support jobseekers by offering guidance and granting access to networks of sector specialists and vacancies.

• Job Coaching Programmes in several cantons: In various cantons, including Fribourg, job coaching programmes train employment and placement counsellors at ORPs to enhance their support for jobseekers. This continuous training course was developed and implemented in cooperation with the Faculty of Social Work at the University of Applied Sciences in Fribourg.

• Basel's Engagement with Network 50+: Basel collaborates with Network 50+, an initiative that supports the PES's employer services by engaging with employers, federations, and associations to raise awareness about older jobseekers and the available unemployment insurance tools.

• Geneva's Collaborative Workspace: Geneva has established a dedicated collaborative workspace for jobseekers aged 50 and over, shared with ORP staff, private employment agencies, and other companies. On-site services include counselling, placement support, and training courses. Additionally, Geneva provides workspaces and expert support at the Cantonal Employment Office to enhance the digital skills of hard-to-place jobseekers and improve their access to the job market.

Source: SECO (2022[69]), “Rétrospective des conférences nationales sur le thème des actifs seniors (2015-2021)” [Retrospective of national conferences on the topic of senior workers (2015-2021)].

Box 4.21. Germany’s Perspektive 50+ programme

The Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs financed the “Perspective 50 Plus – Employment Pacts for Older Workers in the Regions” (Perspektive 50+) programme from 2005 to 2015. This programme, aimed to reactivate and integrate older workers aged 50 and older into employment. The target group were predominantly lower-skilled and semi-skilled jobseekers, as well as the long-term unemployed. The programme also aimed to shift employer attitudes to encourage the hiring of older workers.

In its implementation, a total of 77 regional employment pacts were established, involving nearly all Jobcentres responsible for means-tested minimum income recipients, as well as a wide range of local stakeholders such as companies, chambers of commerce, trade unions, municipalities, training providers, churches, and social service providers. This multi-actor cooperation allowed services to be tailored to regional labour market needs, pool resources, and raise awareness among employers. The cooperation and activities varied by region.

The Perspective 50+ programme offered a range of services aimed at improving the employability of older jobseekers. These services included individualised and intensive counselling, coaching, profiling, communication and job application training, internships, and wage subsidies. Jobcentres were granted increased flexibility to combine and tailor these measures according to individual needs. The most frequently used services were personalised job search counselling, coaching, and skills assessments, while training measures were used about half as often. Wage subsidies and start-up support were less commonly applied.

An early evaluation of the first phase of the programme in 2007 highlighted its effectiveness in combining individualised counselling and coaching with employer outreach. The most recent evaluation confirmed that placement outcomes were better compared to traditional approaches that relied more heavily on standard active labour market policies (ALMPs) and less on tailored counselling (Knuth, Stegmann and Zink, 2014[70]). However, participation among those aged over 60 remained limited. A sub-programme focusing on intensive counselling and guidance, evaluated by the IAB, showed that Jobcentres prioritising employability support, social stabilisation, and societal inclusion achieved better integration outcomes than those focusing more narrowly on social inclusion and labour market integration (Brussig, Stegmann and Zink, 2014[71]).

Since the Perspective 50+ programme ended in 2015, the focus in Germany has shifted towards targeted programmes for the long-term unemployed, particularly those experiencing very long-term unemployment. Although the incidence of long-term unemployment remains high among older workers, they continue to benefit from the integrated and cooperative approach outlined above.

Source: OECD (2018[72]), “Key Policies to promote longer working lives in Germany”, Country Note: Germany, Brussig, Stegmann, and Zink (2014[71]), “Aktivierung von älteren ALG-II-Beziehenden, mit mehrfachen Vermittlungshemmnissen. Der Einfluss lokaler Umsetzungsstrategies’’ [Activation of older recipients of unemployment benefit II (ALG-II) with multiple employment barriers], Knuth, Stegmann and Zink (2014[70]), “Die Wirkungen des Bundesprogramms “Perspektive 50plus” [The Effects of the Federal Program “Perspektive 50plus”. Opportunities for Older Long-Term Unemployed Individuals].

An initial step for Poland could be to build strong local cooperation networks by improving employer engagement at the local and regional levels. As outlined in Chapter: PES strategies for employer engagement, closer cooperation with local employers is essential for designing activation strategies adequate to the local labour market situation. WUP and PUP could reach out to employers, employer associations (pol. organizacje pracodawców), and chambers of commerce (pol. izby rzemieślnicze i handlowe), to form the basis for collaboration on strategies for activating older PES clients. This cooperation could be centred on semi-formal stakeholder meetings organised regularly, where labour offices and local labour market actors could exchange on labour market needs, identify skills shortages, and deliberate on strategies for activating older individuals. These meetings would be aligned with the PES responsibility of cooperating with local labour market stakeholders through the creation of local partnerships, outlined in Art. 6 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services. While allowing the Polish PES to gather insights on employer expectations, the meetings could also allow the Offices to advocate for the hiring of older individuals, by underlining the value of their life experience. During the meetings, labour offices could take on a role of a discussion mediator. Over time, such forums could be used to design joint initiatives, such as sector-specific retraining offers, mentorship programmes, or tailored matching services.

Building on local partnerships for information exchanges, labour offices could develop dedicated support programmes for older individuals based on individualised career guidance and employer-driven mentoring. Founding programmes for older individuals in joint PES-employer cooperation, as in the case of Switzerland’s Viamia or the German Perspektive 50+ programme can allow older jobseekers to gain a comprehensive assessment of their strengths and interests, develop an understanding of employers’ expectations, and lead to potential career transitions. Mentoring components could be a key feature of these programmes. Selected mentors from private sector stakeholders could be engaged to provide personalised guirdance to older clients, as a part of an ‘internship’ service offered by the PES. Labour offices could establish formal cooperation agreements with these partners, setting out roles and mentoring standards. Mentors would support jobseekers in navigating the labour market, learning how to prepare an effective job application, or building the confidence necessary to return to employment. Local cooperation projects supporting the activation of older individuals can be implemented as part of special (Art. 209) or regional (Art. 210) programmes.

To further address the challenges faced by older individuals, PES could implement awareness-raising activities to tackle age-related discrimination. Following the Swiss Viamia initiative described in Box 4.20, the dissemination of materials informing employers of best practices in employing and retaining older workers could be introduced in Poland. Materials in the form of brochures or handbooks emphasising the value of older employees could be distributed during stakeholder meetings organised by the PES. Practical guidance could also be made accessible online through PES websites. For instance, in the United Kingdom, the Good Recruitment for Older Workers (GROW) online toolkit has been developed to support employers in reducing age biases in the recruitment process and promoting age diversity in the workplace (Centre for Ageing Better, 2021[73]). By integrating these measures into existing employer engagement efforts, the PES could enhance its advocacy role and help shift employer attitudes towards hiring older individuals.

Introduce community-based initiatives targeting individuals who have reached the statutory retirement age

Community-based initiatives could facilitate the employment of individuals above the statutory retirement age in part-time, paid employment. To offer employment opportunities to those who have reached the statutory retirement age, the PES could introduce programmes specifically targeting retirees who wish to remain active. In Poland, individuals who have reached the statutory retirement age can register with the PES as jobseekers and, unlike early retirees, are allowed to combine paid employment with their pension without diminishing or losing their benefits. This creates an opportunity to engage interested retirees in short-term work that not only supplements their income but also promotes social inclusion. Japan’s Silver Human Resource Centres, which coordinate flexible, small-scale job opportunities for older people could serve as a model for Poland (see Box 4.22). A similar approach could be implemented through collaboration between the PUP, local administrations, local employers, and social economy entities, to identify local job opportunities and match them with older individuals.

Box 4.22. Japan’s Silver Human Resources Centre

Silver Human Resources Centre (SHRC), established in Japan under the 1971 Act on Stabilization of Employment of Elderly Persons, is an organisation that provides flexible working opportunities to people aged 60 years old and above. As of 2023, there are 1 341 centres in Japan and 676 756 people registered with SHRCs, of which 65% are male. SHRCs operate under the supervision of local administrative authorities, which are responsible for authorising the establishment of centres and monitoring their compliance with relevant laws. The funding for SHRCs primarily comes from a combination of national and municipal government. National coordination is provided by the National Silver Human Resource Centre Association.

The 1971 Act lists the main activities of the Centre: (i) the provision of temporary, short-term or light work opportunities for elderly retirees; (ii) the operation of employment placement services for this group; (iii) the delivery of training programmes aimed at equipping older persons with the skills needed to undertake such work; (iv) the undertaking of any additional activities deemed necessary to support temporary or light employment among older persons.

Job placements are typically short-term or project-based and are concentrated in low-intensity sectors, such as community services, cleaning, gardening, retail, and light clerical support, particularly in regions facing labour shortages. They operate on a membership-based basis (with some centres requiring a small annual fee) and specifically target people who are above the statutory retirement age, are in good health, and are motivated to work.

Under the SHRC system, clients – including households, private firms, and public institutions – submit requests to their local centre specifying the nature and scope of tasks for which they seek older workers. The centre then reviews the requests and determines the appropriate job content in consultation with the client. Job placement is facilitated through two principal contractual arrangements: delegation and dispatch. The delegation model, which is the more prevalent of the two, involves a service contract with a client. The centre subsequently allocates the task to one or more of its registered members, typically on a rotational basis. The centre invoices the client and distributes compensation to the assigned workers upon receipt of payment. Under the dispatch model, workers are assigned directly to the client’s premises and perform tasks under the client’s supervision. In such cases, senior workers are afforded certain statutory labour protections, and the contractual relationship resembles that of standard temporary agency work. In 2023, the total value of contracts secured by SHRCs amounted to JPY 314.1 billion.

Source: National Silver Human Resources Center Association (2023[74]) National Statistics, Dheeranantakul (2021[75]) Aging Society & the Labor Market: A Brief Comparative Study of the Elderly Employment System in Japan vs.Thailand, Duell et al. (2010[76]) “Activation Policies in Japan”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, Bass and Oka (1995[77]) An Older-Worker Employment Model: Japan's Silver Human Resource Centers, Government of Japan (1971[78]) Act on Stabilization of Employment of Elderly Persons (Act No. 68 of 1971)

Through local partnerships with public, private and third sector entities, employment counsellors could provide targeted support to individuals above the statutory retirement age. Under Article 6 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services, the PES can support local employment through partnerships with local employers, social economy entities, or the local administration. These partnerships could work towards identifying short-term, low-intensity job opportunities suitable for older individuals such as community gardening, light maintenance work or clerical assistance in offices. Employment counsellors could then promote these opportunities to registered retirees interested in part-time work. To facilitate this process, a dedicated database of inclusive job offers could be established (see Chapter: PES strategies for Employer Engagement for details).

Include women returning to the labour force as a target group for participating in training measures

Women without children under the age of six are a target group among Poland’s economically inactive population. Economically inactive women in Poland form a diverse group, which includes those who remain outside of the labour market due to childcare and other care responsibilities (see Chapter: Identifying and characterising groups of economically inactive people in Poland). In 2022, around 87% of all inactive individuals who did not receive disability or old-age benefits were women. Within this group, many women without children under the age of six are no longer engaged in full-time caregiving, yet they remain inactive due to their personal choice or difficulties with re-entering the labour market. Focus group interviews showed that even without childcare duties, many face persistent obstacles to employment, including a lack of support from partners, strong social expectations to remain the manager of the household, and gender-based discrimination by employers and on the job, especially in male-dominated fields.

Currently, the PES in Poland do not offer services specifically targeted at women but women are more likely to benefit from childcare reimbursement schemes. Childcare reimbursement programmes are more frequently accessed by women who register with the PUP and subsequently enter employment or begin an internship, reflecting the fact that women continue to bear the primary responsibility for childcare within Polish households (Magda, 2020[79]). However, childcare subsidies are limited to children under the age of 7 – the start of school age – thus disqualifying women with older children from receiving such support.

Economic activation efforts targeted at women have mostly focussed on women with childcare responsibilities for young children. Local programs targeting women most often focus on women who have recently left the labour market due to childcare responsibilities and continue to care for children under the age of six. Women with care responsibilities for young children have been targeted as a specific demographic group under small-scale pilot projects, regional programmes and special programmes across Poland. One example is the “Women on their Own” (Kobieta na Swoim) programme implemented in Gdańsk, which provided a combination of start-up funding and childcare services (see Box 4.23). While such programmes can support women whose primary employment barrier is caregiving responsibilities, they do not address the challenges faced by women who are no longer full-time caregivers but have developed barriers to employment due to prolonged economic inactivity, such as skill deterioration or a lack of confidence to re-enter the labour market.

Box 4.23. The “Women on their own” programme

Between 2022 and 2024, the Powiat Labour Office in Gdańsk (Powiatowy Urząd Pracy) implemented a special programme supporting unemployed women with children under the age of six in starting their own business. Under the “Women on their Own” (Kobieta na Swoim) programme, participants were offered access to counselling to assess their entrepreneurial potential, access to start-up funding up to EUR 8 250 (PLN 35 000), as well as subsidies for legal services, childcare, and training related to their planned business activity.

Source: Gdański Urząd Pracy (2024[80]), Rynek pracy [Labour Market].

The labour market re-integration of women who have been economically inactive for extended periods could be supported through returner programmes. Returner programmes, targeted at women returning to work after a long break of typically two or more years, can support the re-integration into work. These initiatives are designed to address barriers to employment and facilitate the return to professional life. Typical barriers for women returning to the labour force include a lack of confidence and low self-esteem, a lack of flexible working hours, childcare costs, outdated skills and knowledge, and negative employer perceptions. The United Kingdom’s experience with publicly funded returner programmes demonstrates the benefits of group-based training, personalised counselling measures and strong engagement of local employers. All projects reported significant growth in participants' confidence, helping them feel more assured of their workplace skills and abilities. The support enabled them to upskill, reskill, and gain confidence in their existing competencies. Box 4.24 provides more details on returner programmes in the UK. Similar support to women and other professionals who have taken extended career breaks can also be provided through private sector initiatives. For example, in the UK, Career Returners, a social impact consulting, coaching and network organisation, advocates for returners with government bodies and companies (Career Returners, 2025[81]).

Box 4.24. Programmes for women returning to the labour market in the United Kingdom

A wide range of employers in the financial services, consulting, and Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics sectors have run returner programmes in the UK since 2014, with the number of programmes increasing from just three that year to 36 by 2017. To further support people returning to work after a career break for caring responsibilities, the Government Equalities Office (GEO) launched the Returners Fund, awarding approximately £1.5 million to 16 pilot projects designed to engage and support returners and employers in the private sector. These projects, delivered between 2017 and 2021, were run by training providers, voluntary organisations, and third sector groups, offering both personalised and cohort-based support to help returners re-enter the workforce.

The 16 pilot programmes offered three main types of support to assist returners in re-entering the workforce:

• Personalised Support: This approach focused on one-to-one guidance tailored to the specific needs and aspirations of individual returners. Support often included informal conversations, mentoring, career counselling, and practical job search assistance. These services were delivered in person, over the phone, or online. In addition to coaching and career advice, participants received help in building confidence, self-belief, and motivation. Other needs, such as financial advice and English language skills, were also addressed.

• Cohort Training: Under this model, returners participated in group-based training and employment support activities. A key feature of this format was peer support, where participants could share advice and encouragement. Training programmes varied in duration and intensity, ranging from two-day workshops to ten-week courses. Topics included job-search skills, confidence-building, and mental well-being. The content and focus of each programme were adapted based on the needs of participants and any additional challenges identified during their progress. Some projects invited employers, employment support organisations, and alumni to lead sessions, providing networking opportunities and insights into workplace expectations. For example, the Shpresa and Twist projects included networking sessions with employers and entrepreneurs from similar backgrounds, offering participants direct exposure to industry professionals.

• Employer Placements: Many projects facilitated work placement opportunities, both paid and unpaid, as a critical step for helping returners become work-ready or transition into permanent roles. Participating employers included small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) as well as large corporations across diverse sectors such as education, health and social work, and creative industries.

Note: A list of these 16 projects can be found in the report Returners Grant Fund Evaluation (pages 7 and 8). Some of the 16 organisations managing the projects will be mentioned in this case study, such as Carer Support Wiltshire, Creative Equals, Westminster City Council, F1 Recruitment and Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD). An evaluation of the Returners Fund, including the 16 pilot projects is available in the: Returners Grant Fund Evaluation. Grant Fund Report. In addition, individual evaluations for the Returners Programmes in ICT, Planning Sector, Social Work and Health have been carried out and are available here. No evaluation has been found on the STEM Recharge pilot.

Source: SQW (2021[82]), Returners Grant Fund Evaluation: Grant Fund Report.

To facilitate the activation of women returning to the labour market, the PUP could first strengthen the cooperation with local employers that experience labour shortages. Similar to the strategy outlined for the cooperation on joint initiatives for older workers, labour offices could encourage employers to consider taking on women as job candidates. However, for employers to take part in activation strategies, effective employer engagement strategies need to be first implemented. Such strategies include building the internal capacity of PES staff to advocate for jobseekers and creating new opportunities for contact with employers and improve mutual trust (see Chapter: PES strategies for employer engagement). To introduce direct placement services, labour offices could collaborate with employers on the design of upskilling programmes. Cooperation with employers could be based on partnership agreements developed under the legal framework for local partnerships defined in Article 6 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services. Mentoring services, outlined for the group of older previously inactive individuals, could also be applied to this target group.

Alongside direct employer engagement, labour offices could offer structured, group-based support to women. Cohort training formats, based on the UK’s Returners’ Programme, include dedicated group counselling sessions focused on career planning, confidence-building, and navigating the return to the labour market. Cohort-based activities could provide women with opportunities for peer support, allowing them to share experiences, benefit from each other’s advice and building networks of mutual assistance. Group counselling sessions could be delivered under the existing framework of career counselling services, specified in the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services, engaging external trainers or coaches, where specialised expertise is needed. The sessions could be delivered as part of short-term training workshops, as in the case of UK’s Returners’ Programme. Additionally, cohort training could be co-organised with local employers and PES clients who found employment, enabling women to gain insights into employer demands and the realities of adjusting to a new workplace. Networking sessions could also be organised under the framework of career counselling, or during events organised by PUP such as local job fairs. The proposed approach builds upon the previous experiences of Polish PES with introducing pilot projects or regional programmes targeting women. In comparison to previous initiatives undertaken by PES that predominantly focused on mothers with children under the age of six, a returner programme could engage a broader target group (Gdański Urząd Pracy, 2022[83]; Portal Miasta Gdańska, 2022[84])). The approach would expand the target group to all inactive women, regardless of their children’s age. The emphasis would be put on group-based training, to foster a supportive environment that addresses both hard skills and soft skills development as well as confidence building. Finally, the given approach would incorporate structured employer mentoring, through which women could benefit from real-world insights and networking opportunities, increasing their readiness for the re-entry into employment.

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Annex 4.A. Multi-level governance of public employment services

To classify the competencies of PES across the OECD countries, the chapter relies on the categorisation of the role of different levels of government into four distinct categories (OECD, 2023[85]). In centralised systems, national ministries or agencies manage service delivery, often through deconcentrated offices or by coordinating outsourced provision. Second, decentralised, with regional or local governments responsible for overseeing implementation. Decentralised systems assign implementation to regional or local governments, with central authorities typically overseeing coordination and/or funding. This is the case in most federal countries, with a few exceptions, as well as a small number of unitary countries. Combined systems involve shared or asymmetrically decentralised responsibilities between national and subnational levels. Finally, network-based systems rely on a mix of public, private and non-profit providers for service delivery, differing from decentralised models by delegating provision directly to external actors.

Annex Table 4.A.1. Multi-level governance of public employment services

	Centralised National ministry or agency responsible for overseeing implementation	Decentralised Regional or local governments responsible for delivery	Combined system Shared competences for same set of ALMPs/clients or asymmetric decentralisation	Network / outsourced Combination of public, private, and/or non-profit providers responsible for delivery
Federal or quasi-federal countries	Austria, Germany	Belgium, Canada, Spain, Switzerland, United States	Mexico	Australia
Unitary countries	Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Sweden, Türkiye	Denmark, Poland	Chile, Costa Rica, Finland, Italy, Korea, Portugal, United Kingdom	Colombia
Total	21	7	8	2

Note: This table maps the governance structure of public employment services, which are typically the main provider of ALMPs for the registered unemployed. In countries such as Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden, ALMPs for specific target groups, such as those on social assistance benefits, are fully or partially decentralised. In Portugal and the United Kingdom, competences are decentralised on an asymmetric basis. In Portugal, competences are centralised with the exception of the Autonomous Regions. In the United Kingdom, competences for services in England, Scotland and Wales are provided through the Jobcentre Plus, part of the Department of Work and Pensions. In Northern Ireland, competences for employment matters are devolved.Finland is in a transitional phase of reforms to devolve responsibilities to municipalities.

Source: OECD (2023[85]) ““Who does what” for active labour market policies: A zoom on the role of subnational governments”.

Notes

← 1.  Data received from the Tarnów Statistical Office, for the year 2022. Tarnów Statistical Office manages the Statistics Poland “1.25.11 Beneficiaries of Social Assistance” dataset. The dataset includes aggregated, anonymised data on the characteristics of social assistance beneficiaries, that is those who receive support from the Social Assistance Offices (OPS). The variables include the age, gender, level of education (ISCED), health status, employment status, and the type of assistance received. Information about the type of household was also gathered and includes characteristics such as the number of children in a household, age of children in a household, number of employed individuals constituting a household. The data is provided at the powiat level.

← 2.  According to the Article 212 of the Act on Labour Market and Employment Services, MRPiPS is authorised to establish a ministerial activation programme to support the employment and social activation of people with disabilities and their caregivers. The programme is financed from the Labour Fund. Its implementation is carried out through a call for proposals, managed by MRPiPS, with PES, social economy entities, employment agencies, training organisations, and local government entities being able to participate.