OECD Style Guide (Fourth Edition)

2. Bibliographical references, citations and notes

Abstract

Bibliographical references and citations provide the necessary information for readers to locate and verify the sources used in the document. Proper acknowledgement of source materials ensures the credibility, transparency and accessibility of OECD content.

General rules

• All OECD authors are required to provide the sources for concepts, data and quotations used in their publications.

• The OECD provides a citation tool, Mendeley, available through O.N.E Author.

• Citing your sources as you draft saves time.

See also: Capitalisation; Italics, roman and bold type; Punctuation.

Citing sources in-text

• All source material, whether printed or digital, whether a publication or a media or multimedia product, can be cited in-text, following the rules below.

• By providing key information in parentheses, in-text citations provide immediate reference to sources without interrupting the flow of reading.

Do

✔ Use the author-date system for in-text citations.

• For one author, include the author’s surname and the year of publication, as well as page number(s) if desired.

• For up to three authors, list all; for four or more authors, use the first author’s surname and “et al.”.

• When several works are cited in the same place, cite them within parentheses, separated by semi-colons.

• The author(s) may also be cited by name followed by the publication date in parentheses.

• For forthcoming works, list the author’s surname and “forthcoming”.

• For unpublished works, list the author’s surname and “unpublished”.

• For works without a publication date, list the author’s surname and “n.d.”.

✔ See the table “In-text citations” for examples.

✔ Ensure that for each source you cite in-text, the full citation appears in your reference list.

Don’t

✘ Include excessive in-text citations in a single sentence, integrate them meaningfully.

✘ Make generic statements without proper sourcing.

✘ Place source citations in footnotes or endnotes.

In-text citations

 

Type	Citation
Single author	Strengthening a “culture of professionalism”, in which staff are proud to belong to the entity, accompanied by “soft” incentives, could compensate for wage gaps with the private sector (OECD, 2016[1]).
Multiple authors	Co-ordinated industry-wide collaboration is essential to ensuring that decarbonisation efforts are effective, economically viable and resilient (Deng and Mi, 2023[5]). Capital flows into emerging-market economies have picked up this year, supported by solid growth, the improving inflation outlook and enhanced fiscal and monetary policy frameworks (Hardy et al., 2024[2]).
Multiple works	These areas have been examined in a series of OECD/EUIPO reports in recent years (OECD/EUIPO, 2018[10]; OECD/EUIPO, 2020[11]; OECD/EUIPO, 2021[12]).
Author names in text	Deng and Mi (2023[5]) note that without co-ordinated industry-wide collaboration decarbonisation efforts will not be effective, economically viable and resilient.
No publication date	Several case studies suggest (OECD, n.d.[23]) that effective policy solutions exist.
Forthcoming	Depending on the initiative, the consultation plan may include a call for evidence, planned public consultation, targeted consultation, working groups and so on (OECD, forthcoming[24]).
Unpublished	The data show significant disparities between the two regions (Smith, unpublished[7]).

Citing full sources in the references section

• Include all sources cited in the text in your references section.

• All media and multimedia sources, regardless of content type or format, must be cited in-text and in the appropriate reference section.

Do

✔ Style the author names as follows:

• For a single author, use “last name, first initial”: Smith, J.

• For two authors, use “last name, first initial and first initial last name”: Smith, J. and M. N’diaye

• For three authors, list all, using “last name, first initial” then “first initial last name”: Smith, J., M. N’diaye and A. Singh

• For four or more authors, use “et al.”: Smith, J. et al.

• For editor(s) use “last name, first initial (ed.)/(eds.)”: Rossi, P. (ed.) or Ito, F. and H. Aalto (eds.)

✔ Style institutional author names as follows:

• For a single institution, use the institution’s acronym (or full name if they do not have an acronym): OECD

• For two or three institutions, use their acronyms (or full name if they do not have an acronym) separated by a slash: OECD/World Bank/IADB

• For four or more institutions, use the acronym or full name of the first institution and “et al.”: OECD et al.

✔ Ensure that each entry contains all relevant information as outlined in the tables and examples below.

Don’t

✘ Include materials not referenced in your text in the references section.

✘ Put hyperlinks behind a title; instead, include the URL at the end when appropriate.

Citing reports

 

Type	Citation
Stand-alone monograph	Author(s) (Year), Report title: Report subtitle, Publisher, City, Unique URL for identifier. OECD (2025), Does Healthcare Deliver?: Results from the Patient-Reported Indicator Surveys (PaRIS), OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c8af05a5-en.
Periodicals (OECD Outlooks, At Glance, Surveys, etc.)	Author(s) (Year), Report title: Report subtitle, Publisher, City, Unique URL for identifier. OECD (2024), OECD Employment Outlook 2024: The Net-Zero Transition and the Labour Market, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ac8b3538-en. OECD (2024), OECD Regions and Cities at a Glance 2024, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f42db3bf-en. OECD/FAO (2024), OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2024-2033, OECD Publishing, Paris/FAO, Rome, https://doi.org/10.1787/4c5d2cfb-en. OECD (2025), OECD Economic Surveys: Luxembourg 2025, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/803b3ea1-en.
Report series	Author(s) (Year), Report title: Report subtitle, Series Title, No. Series Report Number, Publisher, City, Unique URL for identifier. OECD (2025), OECD Reviews of Labour Market and Social Policies: Bulgaria 2025, OECD Reviews of Labour Market and Social Policies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/81e7cac7-en. OECD/SWAC (2025), Roads and Conflicts in North and West Africa, West African Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/77474489-en. OECD/ILO/CAWTAR (2020), Changing Laws and Breaking Barriers for Women’s Economic Empowerment in Egypt, Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia, Competitiveness and Private Sector Development, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ac780735-en.
Technical report	Author(s) (Year), Report title: Report subtitle, Publisher, City, Unique URL for identifier. OECD (2024), Tax and Development at the OECD: A Retrospective (2009-2024), OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9db734bc-en.

Citing papers and articles

 

Type	Citation
Policy paper, working paper	Author(s) (Year), “Paper title: Paper subtitle”, Paper Series Title, No. Paper number [or Volume/Issue], Publisher, City, Unique URL for identifier. OECD (2024), “Competition in the food supply chain”, OECD Roundtables on Competition Policy Papers, No. 319, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/37d6b801-en. OECD (2021), “G20 Rome guidelines for the future of tourism: OECD Report to G20 Tourism Working Group”, OECD Tourism Papers, No. 2021/03, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/d11080db-en. Slawomirski, L. et al. (2025), “The economics of diagnostic safety”, OECD Health Working Papers, No. 176, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/fc61057a-en. Author(s) (Year), “Paper title: Paper subtitle”, Publisher, City, Unique URL for identifier. OECD (2024), “The benefits of learning the difference between facts and faith: An impact assessment”, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/16e43df1-en.
Journal article	Author(s) (Year), “Article title: Article subtitle”, Journal Title: Journal Subtitle, Vol. Volume/Issue, page number(s), Unique URL for identifier. Ghosh, A. (2023), “Can India Become a Green Superpower?: The Stakes of the World’s Most Important Energy Transition”, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 102/4, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/india/can-india-become-green-superpower. Bulliard, J. et al. (2021), “Breast cancer screening and overdiagnosis”, International Journal of Cancer, Vol. 149/4, pp. 846-853, https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.33602.

Citing short content

 

Type	Citation
Policy brief	Author(s) (Year), “Policy brief title: Policy brief subtitle”, Publisher, City, Unique URL for identifier. OECD (2023), “The rise and fall of public social spending with the COVID-19 pandemic”, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/12563432-en. Author(s) (Year), “Policy brief title: Policy brief subtitle”, Policy Brief Series Title, No. Paper number [or No. Volume/Issue, Publisher, City, Unique URL for identifier. OECD (2024), “How do governments direct support for innovation?: Lessons from recent OECD measurement and impact analysis (MABIS) work”, OECD Policy Briefs, No. 4, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c1d93d1c-en.
Country note	Author(s) (Year), “Country note title: Country note subtitle”, Publisher, City, Unique URL for identifier (accessed on Day Month Year). OECD (2025), “Survey of Adults Skills 2023: Germany”, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/survey-of-adults-skills-2023-country-notes_ab4f6b8c-en/germany_5f81cb66-en (accessed on 21 July 2025).
Case study	Author(s) (Year), “Case study title: Case study subtitle”, Publisher, City, Unique URL for identifier (accessed on Day Month Year). OECD (2025), “Canada’s Gender-Based Analysis Plus”, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/well-being-knowledge-exchange-platform-kep_93d45d63-en/canada-s-gender-based-analysis-plus_c0ddec0a-en.html (accessed on 23 July 2025).

Citing components

 

Type	Citation
Chapter, annex	Author(s) (Year), “Chapter/annex title”, in Report Title: Report Subtitle, Publisher, City, Unique URL for identifier. OECD (2024), “SDG. Equity in the Education Sustainable Development Goal”, in Education at a Glance 2024: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/education-at-a-glance-2024_c00cad36-en/full-report/equity-in-the-education-sustainable-development-goal_9d94cd1e.html#chapter-d1e985-23abbc641d. OECD (2025), “Highlights from the 2025 Development Co-operation Peer Review of Luxembourg (infographic)”, in OECD Development Co-operation Peer Reviews: Luxembourg 2025, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-development-co-operation-peer-reviews-luxembourg-2025_3713cf73-en/full-report/highlights-from-the-2025-development-co-operation-peer-review-of-luxembourg-infographic_8c613d69.html#introduction-d5e556. OECD (2025), “Annex A. Statistical annex”, in OECD Employment Outlook 2025: Can We Get Through the Demographic Crunch?, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-employment-outlook-2025_194a947b-en/full-report/component-10.html#annex-d1e35008-615037b21f.
Box, figure, infographic and table	Author(s) (Year), “Box/Figure/Infographic/Table title”, in Report Title: Report Subtitle, Publisher, City, Unique URL for identifier. OECD (2025), “Box ‎4.1. At the regional level: The ecological and solidarity-based participatory budget of the Île‑de-France region (France)”, in Open Government for the Green Transition, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/open-government-for-the-green-transition_bfa02935-en/full-report/la-participation-au-dela-de-la-consultation-peut-garantir-un-engagement-actif-des-citoyens-dans-l-agenda-vert_07283b25.html. OECD (2025), “Figure 1.5. Performance assessment of Ukraine’s specialised anti‑corruption bodies”, in OECD Integrity and Anti-Corruption Review of Ukraine, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-integrity-and-anti-corruption-review-of-ukraine_7dbe965b-en/full-report/strengthening-the-anti-corruption-and-public-integrity-framework-in-ukraine_8e7ced57.html#title-27ca0f1c05. OECD (2022), “Infographic 1.2. Conflict and fragility”, in States of Fragility 2022, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/states-of-fragility-2022_c7fedf5e-en/full-report/component-7.html#title-e9cf764634. OECD (2025), “Table 3.1. Income tax plus employee and employer contributions less cash benefits, 2024”, in Taxing Wages 2025: Decomposition of Personal Income Taxes and the Role of Tax Reliefs, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/taxing-wages-2025_b3a95829-en/full-report/effective-tax-rates-on-labour-income-in-2024_878e20ff.html#title-e2496a0277.

Citing data (including for “OECD Data Explorer”)

 

Type	Citation
Indicator	Author (year or n.d.), Indicator Title: Indicator Subtitle (indicator), Unique URL for identifier (accessed on Day Month Year). OECD (2025), Hours worked (indicator), https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/2db (accessed on 7 July 2025).
Dataset	Author (Year or n.d.), Dataset Title: Dataset Subtitle (dataset), Unique URL for identifier (accessed on Day Month Year). OECD (2025), Main Science and Technology Indicators (dataset), https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/2dc (accessed on 7 July 2025). Eurostat (2023), Population on 1st January by Age, Sex and Type of Projection (dataset), https://doi.org/10.2908/PROJ_23NP (accessed on 7 July 2025).
Dataset group	Author (Year or n.d.), Datasets Group Title (dataset group), Unique URL for identifier (accessed on Day Month Year). OECD (2025), Fisheries and Aquaculture (dataset group), https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/2dd (accessed on 7 July 2025).

Note: For citations from “OECD Data Explorer”, please use its short link generator to create your URL by clicking “Share”.

Citing media and multimedia

 

Type	Citation
Newspaper article	Author(s) (Year), “Article title”, Newspaper Title, Unique URL for identifier (accessed on Day Month Year). Yanatma, S. (2025), “Which countries in Europe have the highest pay?”, euronews, https://www.euronews.com/business/2025/05/06/average-salaries-across-europe-which-countries-have-the-highest-pay (accessed on 6 May 2025).
Web page	Author(s) (Year), “Title of page/site”, Unique URL for identifier (accessed on Day Month Year). OECD (2025), “Environment”, https://www.oecd.org/en/topics/environment.html (accessed on 7 May 2025).
Social media post	Author name or handle (Year), Text of post, Social Media Platform Title, Day Month published, Unique URL for identifier (accessed on Day Month Year). @OECD_Social (2025), Are #training programmes equipping workers with the AI #skills they’ll need for the future? Find out with new OECD analysis http://oe.cd/bridging-ai-skills-gap #OECDAI, X, 24 April, https://x.com/OECD_Social/status/1915359904862216542 (accessed on 4 May 2025).
Blog	Author(s) (Year), “Title of page/site”, Blog Title, Unique URL for identifier (accessed on Day Month Year). Hanagata, M. (2025), “Cities leading the way in the quest for better buildings”, Cogito, https://oecdcogito.blog/ (accessed on 2 May 2025).
Podcast	Author (Year), “Podcast title: Podcast subtitle”, Podcast Series Title: Podcast Series Subtitle, Duration: duration value, Publisher, City, Unique URL for identifier. OECD (2022), “Transition Finance: What is it and why is it needed?”, OECD Podcasts, Duration: 21:08, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/93a3fcbb-en.
Video	Username (Year), “Title” [video], Day Month posted, Unique URL for identifier (accessed on Day Month Year). OECD (2024), “OECD Data, Analysis, Knowledge: Free to access. Yours to share” [video], 4 July, https://youtu.be/vL_INpY-tEE?si=Qqb7JJBam2hCE-w_ (accessed on 7 May 2025).

Citing forthcoming, unpublished work, work without a publication date, or deceased authors

 

Type	Citation
Forthcoming work	Use the correct citation style for the content type, replacing (Year) with (forthcoming); do not include a URL. OECD (forthcoming), Energy Prices and Subsidies in the Western Balkans, OECD Publishing, Paris. Beverelli, C. et al. (forthcoming), “Services trade and environmental sustainability: Conceptual linkages and empirical patterns”, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Unpublished work	Author(s) (unpublished), “Title: Subtitle”. Do not include a URL. Smith, J. (unpublished), “Regional Growth Patterns in Europe: A New Analysis”.
Work without a publication date	Author(s) (n.d.), “Title: Subtitle”. Do not include a URL. Doe, J. (n.d.), “Assessing trade flows: A new methodology”.
Work published after the death of its author(s)	A “death dagger”, represented by “†”, may be added after the author’s name. Dupont, F.† (2024), Monetary Policy and Economic Stability in the 20th Century, Nemo Press, Paris.

Referencing legal documents and legislation

• Legal references should generally include the key relevant information, such as the issuing body, document title, and date, as well as URL if available and date accessed if appropriate.

• When citing legal documentation, domestic citation standards should be followed (e.g. the case law of the French Conseil d’État should be cited in the same way that the Conseil d’État cites its own jurisprudence).

• Many OECD Member countries maintain style guides for their national printing offices as well as databases of legislation, which may be consulted online.

• When citing legal documentation of other international organisations, the standards developed by those organisations should be followed (e.g. Directives of the European Parliament and of the Council should be cited according to EU practice).

• When referencing OECD legal instruments adopted by the OECD Council or within the framework of the OECD, the style will differ depending on whether the legal instrument is mentioned in the body of a text or included in the bibliography. Follow the examples in “Referencing OECD legal instruments”.

Referencing OECD legal instruments

 

Legal instrument	When mentioned by name in the text	Citing in a bibliography
Recommendation	OECD Recommendation on Responsible Innovation in Neurotechnology [OECD/LEGAL/0457]	OECD (n.d.), Recommendation of the Council on Responsible Innovation in Neurotechnology, OECD/LEGAL/0457, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0457 (accessed on 11 June 2025).
Decision	OECD Decision revising the OECD Scheme for the Application of International Standards for Fruit and Vegetables [OECD/LEGAL/0346]	OECD (n.d.), Decision of the Council revising the OECD Scheme for the Application of International Standards for Fruit and Vegetables, OECD/LEGAL/0346, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0346 (accessed on 11 June 2025).
Substantive outcome document (e.g. Declaration, Ministerial Council Statements)	OECD Declaration on Public Sector Innovation [OECD/LEGAL/0450]	OECD (n.d.), Declaration on Public Sector Innovation, OECD/LEGAL/0450, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0450 (accessed on 11 June 2025).
International agreement	Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions [OECD/LEGAL/0293]	OECD (n.d.), Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions, OECD/LEGAL/0293, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0293 (accessed on 11 June 2025).

Note: In your text, take care to make clear to readers whether you are citing a revision of the instrument or its original date of entry into force and use the appropriate year in your citation.

Sources of boxes, figures, infographics and tables

• Every box, figure, infographic and table must clearly cite its source or sources. Use the short reference system: Author(s) (Year), Title, Unique URL for identifier (if possible).

  Source: CERED/HCP (2024), Population Census, https://www.hcp.ma/Recensement-population-RGPH-2014_a2941.html.

• These sources must be included below the box, figure, infographic and table, and also in the appropriate reference section.

• If your box, figure, infographic and table is a direct reproduction of an external source, without being adapted or modified, you must ensure you have the right to reproduce it. Simply citing the source is not sufficient.

• If you adapt a box, figure, infographic and table from another source, make this clear in your citation.

  Source: Based on OECD (2022), Global Plastics Outlook, Figure 2.2, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2022/02/global-plastics-outlook_a653d1c9/full-report/component-7.html#figure-d1e2639.

• If the source is OECD work that is not accessible to the general public and is published for the first time in the work at hand, the publication and its material are the source. For boxes, there is no need to list the publication itself. For data, list the source of the data, even if not public (“Survey of…/Country consultation…”). Do not use “Source: OECD” or “Source: Authors”.

Notes

• Notes provide additional information or commentary without interrupting the flow of the main text.

• Notes are not used to provide sources.

Do

✔ Use endnotes, not footnotes.

✔ Use superscript 1, 2, 3… as note symbols.

✔ Number endnotes consecutively by chapter (for reports) or throughout the text (papers, short content), using the automatic notes function in O.N.E Author.

✔ Place endnote symbols after punctuation, either at the end of the sentence or within it if the note only refers to part of the sentence.

The countries benefitted from higher contributions than pensions benefits and other expenditure.¹

The productivity disparities may stem from differences in cross-border trade dynamics² and the availability of investment.

Don’t

✘ Use footnotes, as they disrupt the formatting of your manuscript in production.

✘ Place a note on a title or on a section heading.

✘ Insert boxes, figures, infographics or tables into a note.

✘ Insert a note into another note.

Notes in boxes, figures, infographics and tables

• Notes in boxes, figures, infographics and tables are numbered separately from the main body text.

Do

✔ Insert note symbols manually as superscripted numerals in boxes, figures, infographics and tables.

✔ Use superscript 1, 2, 3… as note symbols.

Don’t

✘ Place a note on the title.

✘ Use notes to provide the source(s) for boxes, figures, infographics and tables.

✘ Insert a note into a source, another note or an endnote.