Differences in lifelong learning opportunities do not remain confined to the classroom. The 2025 edition of the Skills Outlook shows that they extend well into the workplace, shaping the chances to get a job as well as the quality of the jobs during a career and how much they pay. Technological change, demographic shifts and geopolitical dynamics are transforming the demand for skills at an unprecedented pace. The capacity of workers to adapt, reskill and upskill has become a key determinant to sustain individual opportunities and the collective capacity to adapt and thrive. When learning opportunities are unequally distributed, labour markets differences widen, reinforcing patterns of advantage and disadvantage that persist across generations.
Initial differences in learning opportunities by socio-economic groups are reflected in who is successful in the labour market
The Skills Outlook reveals that the level of education and the occupation of the parents strongly influence the job opportunities of their offspring. For example, on average across OECD countries, adults with at least one tertiary-educated parent are more likely to be employed and earn significantly higher wages than those whose parents did not complete tertiary education.
The impact of socio-economic conditions starts early. They shape educational attainment, participation in adult learning, and skills proficiency. It is not the labour market that values skills differently depending on the social origin of individuals. Rather, differences in labour market outcomes largely reflect differences in the opportunities such groups have to develop their skills. The implication is clear: improving access to education and lifelong learning is key to reducing socio-economic differences in labour market and social outcomes.
Occupational sorting locks many workers into cycles of limited learning and low mobility
Occupations matter not only because they determine wages, but also because they act as “skills ecosystems.” Through their job, workers both use and develop their skills. Workers performing similar tasks develop specific capabilities, and over time these reinforce occupational boundaries. Once workers are clustered into occupations that require only low levels of skills proficiency, opportunities to develop higher-order skills diminish, creating cycles of disadvantage that are difficult to escape. Adults with socio-economically advantaged backgrounds are more likely to build solid skills through formal education, and enter high-growth occupations that also provide more opportunities to further develop their skills. Indeed, these occupations generally provide opportunities for career progression, high wages, but also the incentives and opportunities to engage in upskilling and reskilling. Adults from disadvantaged backgrounds by contrast are more frequently concentrated in lower-wage jobs that seldom offer training opportunities leading to upskilling or reskilling, and that provide little prospects for advancement or transition in new emerging sectors.
Education has levelled learning opportunities between men and women but not labour market outcomes
Whereas differences in educational opportunities explain a large share of labour market disparities by socio-economic origin, this is not the case with respect to differences between men and women. Women have made significant strides in education, so much so that in OECD countries more women than men obtain tertiary level qualifications. However, men’s employment rates exceed women’s by more than eight percentage points on average across the OECD, even when comparing individuals with similar skills and educational qualifications.
Employment gaps between men and women have declined in most countries, but pay gaps are more persistent. On average, men earn 16% more per hour than women with comparable socio-demographic characteristics, educational trajectories, participation in adult learning and skills. This difference reflects the fact that women and men overwhelmingly pursue different fields of study and work in different sectors and occupations. Women are often overrepresented in care and service roles that are often underpaid despite requiring complex skills. Structural features of labour markets, including occupational sorting, pay-setting mechanisms and gender norms, continue to shape outcomes independently of the investments in skills individuals make.
In the 21st century, effective policy making must balance closing existing gaps with anticipating emerging ones
The evidence suggests that differences in initial education and training largely shape differences in labour market outcomes by socio-economic background. At the same time, differences in occupational placement shape differences in opportunities for further skills development and lifelong learning. In this sense, the labour market may work efficiently, but occupational segregation tends to reinforce disparities.
Closing these gaps requires a dual approach. On the one hand, policies must broaden access to lifelong learning, ensuring that socio-economic origin, gender or migration background do not shape participation, so that labour market vulnerabilities are reduced by broadening who acquires and updates their skills to match those demanded in dynamic labour markets. On the other hand, structural reforms must address differences in occupational placement, improve pay equity and create more transparent pathways for career progression.
The 21st century poses an additional challenge that must be addressed. Technological innovation, demographic shifts and geopolitical shocks are driving changes at a speed that often outpaces traditional policy cycles. Economies and societies must invest in the capacity to adapt, and policy can promote adaptation by making learning systems more flexible, workplaces more responsive, and institutions more capable of using real-time evidence. Yet the direction of reform is often unclear to policy makers themselves, because the pace and nature of disruption are difficult to predict. This means that policies must not only close existing gaps but also reinforce their agility to respond to emerging ones.
Reducing skills differences is the foundation for future prosperity
The stakes are high: in labour markets undergoing rapid transformation, disparities in access to skills threatens not only individual opportunity but also collective prosperity. Untapped talent slows productivity growth, exacerbates shortages in critical occupations, and undermines social cohesion. By aligning education, training and labour market strategies, countries can reduce disparities in skills and labour market opportunities and outcomes. Investing in lifelong learning is therefore not only a matter of fairness: it must be a key pillar of any growth strategy for the 21st century. When learning gaps close, earning gaps can close too. And when policy builds adaptability, societies can turn the uncertainties of disruption into opportunities for shared progress.