Focus on social challenges

This page features the latest OECD data, recommendations and policy advice regarding the impact of COVID-19 on social protection, well-being, education and skills, as well as a curated collection of earlier OECD social content.
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The COVID-19 pandemic and ensuing crisis exacerbated deep-seated social inequalities within our societies. Women, low-income households, children and young people, as well as low-skilled, part-time, temporary and self-employed workers, have all been disproportionally affected.

Today, Russia's war of aggression in Ukraine is creating a major humanitarian crisis affecting millions of people and a severe economic shock of uncertain duration and magnitude.

Disrupted learning

In 2020, 1.5 billion students in 188 countries and economies were locked out of their schools due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As vaccines became widely available over the course of 2021, many schools re-opened, even if some disruptions to learning continued.

The impact on students has been severe. National studies to evaluate the impact of school closures on learning outcomes were undertaken in more than half of the countries with available data, covering learning losses in both reading and mathematics, and to a lesser extent, science.

Evaluations have also gone beyond the impact on learning: nearly all countries have also looked at the impact on the mental health and well-being of students.

However, only half of countries have studied the impact on non-cognitive skills, which may have been significantly affected by the long periods of social isolation. Understanding the learning and well-being losses due to school shutdowns will be essential if governments are to develop targeted policies.

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COVID-19 and fragile contexts

Fragility is the combination of exposure to risk and insufficient coping capacities of the state, system and/or communities to manage, absorb or mitigate those risks. It occurs in a spectrum of intensity across six dimensions: economic, environmental, political, security, societal and human.

The socio-economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic led to a global reversal in human development in 2020 and saw the number of people in extreme poverty rise, while between-country inequality also increased.

The 60 fragile contexts identified this year account for 24% of the world’s population but 73% of people living in extreme poverty worldwide. Such a concentration of extreme poverty has exposed people living in fragile contexts to a range of compounding risks that affect their livelihoods and resilience.

One compounding risk in fragile contexts is a significantly lower COVID-19 vaccination rate, which led to a higher number of COVID-19 deaths and signals poorer resilience for the future.

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The employment gap narrows

Immigrants were disproportionately affected by COVID-19. In virtually all countries, they were much more likely to catch the disease and to develop severe symptoms. They were also more vulnerable to the economic shock due to less stable employment conditions and over-representation in the hardest hit sectors.

However, the latest available labour market data (Q3-2021) show an employment rate that has returned to pre crisis levels in most countries, including for foreign-born populations.

Nevertheless, while the immigrant employment rate increased, the actual number of employed migrants declined. This suggests that many migrants who were not able to find work have left the country, which could be skewing the positive employment rate data. This might also be contributing to the current labour shortages where the most essential sectors are struggling to recruit and retain staff.

Going forward, building employment resilience among immigrant populations will require boosting their access to training and improving the recognition of overseas qualifications.

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Latest social challenges insights

Migration

International Migration Outlook 2022

This edition analyses recent developments in migration movements and the labour market inclusion of immigrants in OECD countries, with a special focus on refugees from Ukraine as well as international students.

Report

Education

Education at a Glance 2022

This report provides information on the structure, finances and performance of education systems across OECD countries and partner economies. This edition, focusing on tertiary education, includes a chapter on the shift from COVID crisis management to recovery.

Report

Disinformation

Is digital media literacy the answer to our disinformation woes?

Education can teach us to ask questions, check sources, and understand how algorithms impact the information we’re getting. Experts discuss what 21st-century critical thinking should look like.

Podcast

Children in care

Assisting care leavers

Young adults who have lived in out-of-home care at some point during their childhood often struggle to build stable lives. This report identifies the key challenges that care leavers face and provides a range of good practice examples in OECD countries.

Report

GENDER

Worn out: COVID-19, women and the Great Exhaustion

The COVID-19 pandemic hit women particularly hard with disproportionate job losses, front line exposure, and unpaid work at home. What can governments do to deal with this Great Exhaustion?

Podcast

Young people

Delivering for youth

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a particular impact on young people, and governments need to adopt an integrated public governance approach to deliver a fair, inclusive and resilient recovery for young people.

Policy response

Covid & Employment

Riding the waves: Adjusting job retention schemes through the COVID-19 crisis

In response to the pandemic, nearly all OECD countries took steps to protect jobs, but as the situation has evolved, many countries have adjusted, scaled down or even phased out these job retention schemes.

Policy response

Inclusive recovery

Spotlight on an inclusive recovery

The crisis unleashed by COVID-19 has put a spotlight on equity challenges that existed well before the pandemic. We must prepare for an inclusive and transformative recovery together, one that puts people’s well-being at the centre.

Story

Explore key topics and broaden your knowledge of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Browse SDGs

Browse all related resources

From childcare and elderly support to housing and food security, this collection focuses on people and livelihoods. It pulls together OECD analysis and data spanning a multitude of issues related to social protection and inequalities, many of which are being challenged in the context of the global coronavirus (Covid-19) crisis.

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30/11/2022
Report
OECD Tourism Trends and Policies 2022
Tourism has been hit hard by the depth and duration of the crisis triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic. Just as the sector was starting to rebound, the economic fallout from Russia’s aggression against Ukraine has dealt a fresh blow to recovery prospects. The 2022 edition of OECD Tourism Trends and Policies analyses tourism performance and policy trends to support recovery across 50 OECD countries and partner economies. It examines the key tourism recovery challenges and outlook ahead, and highlights the need for co-ordinated, forward-looking policy approaches to set tourism on a path to a more resilient, sustainable and inclusive future. Evidence on the significance of the tourism economy is presented, with data covering domestic, inbound and outbound tourism, enterprises and employment, and internal tourism consumption. Tourism policy priorities, reforms and developments are analysed and examples of country practices highlighted. Thematic chapters provide insights on building resilience in the tourism ecosystem and promoting a green tourism recovery.
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26/11/2022
Report
Multilateral Development Finance 2022
Nearly three years after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, a succession of mutually reinforcing crises and a challenging global context are putting the multilateral development system under pressure. Multilateral development finance is stretched across an ever expanding list of priorities, ranging from humanitarian crisis response to the provision of global and regional public goods. The urgent nature of these crises requires renewed efforts to strengthen the financial capacity of the multilateral development system but should not divert attention from other parts of the reform agenda, such as the need to reduce the fragmentation of the multilateral architecture.This third edition of the Multilateral Development Finance report presents recent trends in multilateral development finance in order to inform decisions by the members of the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) on their strategic engagement with multilateral organisations. It presents an overview of challenges and ongoing reform efforts, and examines the evolution of financial flows to, and from, multilateral organisations. The report is supplemented by online statistics on DAC members’ multilateral contributions, available in the Development Co-operation Profiles.
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25/11/2022
Podcast
Understanding social mobility and equal opportunity
Inequalities not only affect our lives, but also the lives of our children in generations after us. How can we ensure that our children have more opportunities than we have, that generations after us are rising in society and not limited by sticky floors? Romina Boarini, Director of the OECD Centre on Well-Being, Inclusion, Sustainability and Equal Opportunity, helps us understand social mobility, what it is, how it works, what government and societies can do to help and what the OECD is doing.
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25/11/2022
Paper
Current challenges to social mobility and equality of opportunity
The current economic environment, the COVID-19 pandemic and ongoing megatrends, such as digitalisation and the green transformation, threaten equality of opportunity and social mobility for current and future generations. High-quality cross-country evidence is necessary to implement policies to mitigate these threats, but critical data gaps remain.This paper provides updated indicators on equality of opportunity and social mobility across OECD countries and discusses ongoing challenges and opportunities to break down barriers to social mobility and promote equal opportunities for all. It also reviews four areas where more evidence is needed to inform effective policies: the extent of opportunity gaps across population groups; how unequal upbringings affect chances later in life; how growing economic insecurity and large wealth inequalities limit social mobility; and unequal distribution of opportunities across cities and regions. Work in these areas will inform the agenda of the OECD Observatory on Social Mobility and Equal Opportunity.
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25/11/2022
Paper
The economic costs of childhood socio-economic disadvantage in European OECD countries
Growing up in socio-economic disadvantage has important and long-lasting effects on children’s lives. Children from disadvantaged households often fall behind in many areas of well-being and development, with effects that continue to limit their opportunities and outcomes – including their health and labour market outcomes – long after they reach adulthood. Drawing on Europe-wide survey data from 27 countries, this paper explores how childhood socio-economic disadvantage affects later adult labour market and health outcomes, and evaluates the country-level GDP-equivalent cost of childhood disadvantage due to lost employment, lost earnings, and lost health, as well as the costs of lost government revenue and benefit spending. Results point to large costs for societies from childhood socio-economic disadvantage, totalling on average the equivalent of 3.4% of GDP annually.
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25/11/2022
Report
Health at a Glance: Asia/Pacific 2022
This seventh edition of Health at a Glance Asia/Pacific presents a set of key indicators of health status, the determinants of health, health-care resources and utilisation, health-care expenditure and financing, and quality of care across 27 Asia-Pacific countries and territories. It also provides a series of dashboards to compare performance across countries and territories, and a thematic analysis on the health impact of COVID-19. Drawing on a wide range of data sources, it builds on the format used in previous editions of Health at a Glance, and gives readers a better understanding of the factors that affect the health of populations and the performance of health systems in these countries and territories. Each of the indicators is presented in a user-friendly format, consisting of charts illustrating variations across countries and territories, and over time, brief descriptive analyses highlighting the major findings conveyed by the data, and a methodological box on the definition of the indicators and any limitations in data comparability. An annex provides additional information on the demographic and economic context in which health systems operate.
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22/11/2022
Report
Promoting Health and Well-being at Work
Policies to promote employee health and well-being not only protect from occupational risks, but also provide benefits for individuals and employers. Unhealthy lifestyles, characterised by high levels of stress, sedentary behaviour and poor eating habits, affect the health of employees and negatively impact workplace productivity. Governments play a key role in promoting health and well-being in the workplace. This report analyses policy levers used by governments to incentivise employers to promote health and well-being at work in ten countries, including G7 countries and OECD countries in the Asia/Pacific region. These include regulation, financial incentives, guidelines, and certification and award schemes. The report also explores how governments can facilitate Environmental, Social and Governance investment to encourage health promotion at work.
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21/11/2022
Report
Education Policy Outlook 2022
The effects of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (with its dramatic impact on energy and food prices), the continuation of the COVID-19 pandemic, and extreme weather events in some parts of the world in 2022 are expected to reverberate into 2023. International implications for education and training include economic uncertainty and tight labour markets, ongoing digital transformation, and continued growth and influence of mass information. These trends challenge education policymakers to transform existing pathways in their countries and economies, so people can become effective lifelong learners to navigate change. Building on the OECD’s Framework of Responsiveness and Resilience in Education Policy, as well as analysis of international policies and practices from over 40 education systems implemented mainly since 2020, this report identifies three areas of policy effort that education policymakers can undertake in 2023: 1) enhancing the relevance of learning pathways; 2) easing transitions throughout learners’ pathways; and 3) nurturing learners’ aspirations. Lessons emerging from recent policy efforts are synthesised into key policy pointers for 2023. The report has been prepared with evidence from the Education Policy Outlook series—the OECD’s analytical observatory of education policy.
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18/11/2022
Paper
Digital higher education
Fully online and hybrid study programmes have emerged at a rapid rate across higher education. However, the negative experience of some students, instructors and institutions with emergency remote instruction during the COVID 19 pandemic has led to public concerns over the quality of digital study programmes. As a result, public authorities across the OECD have started to reflect on how to embed the quality assurance (QA) of digital education into their existing QA frameworks for higher education. This Working Paper aims to assist policy makers as they seek to adapt their higher education QA systems to digital education by: reviewing the advice and guidance provided by international and regional quality assurance organisations; analysing the standards and indicators for digital higher education developed by QA agencies; identifying trends and best practice from higher education institutions for the quality management of digital study programmes; and discussing how public authorities can support institutions to enhance their internal quality management policies and processes for digital teaching and learning
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16/11/2022
Paper
Towards good practice principles for government transparency in the use of recovery funds
This policy paper, developed in collaboration with the European Ombudsman, provides guidance to governments on ensuring transparency and accountability in the use of COVID-19 recovery funds. With a specific focus on the funding provided through the European Union’s Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF), the paper identifies ways for local, national and EU administrations to promote access to information, enhance public communication, and strengthen citizen and stakeholder participation and oversight in the implementation phases of recovery funding. Finally, it highlights the role of regional, national and supranational organisations (such as the aforementioned European Ombudsman) in fostering the open government principles of transparency, accountability, and stakeholder participation throughout the public decision-making and spending cycle, within the remits of their respective mandates.
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15/11/2022
Paper
Swimming skills around the world
Being able to swim empowers individuals to make choices, have agency, and be free to choose core aspects of their life, such as working safely on or near water. It is also associated with lifelong health benefits and reduces the risk of drowning. Using data from the Lloyd’s Register Foundation World Risk Poll 2019, this paper provides the first global estimates of adults’ ability to swim without assistance. Individuals in high-income countries are considerably more likely to report being able to swim without assistance than individuals in low-income countries. Disparities also exist within countries. In particular, women are less likely to be able to swim without assistance than men in virtually all countries, birth cohorts, and levels of education. Investing in reducing inequalities in life skills, such as swimming, can foster economic development and empowerment, especially in light of threats, such as climate change.
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15/11/2022
Paper
Putting people first in digital transformation
Digital transformation affects every aspect of our lives, providing new spaces and tools for us to connect, work, consume, and enjoy our rights. It offers a multitude of social and economic opportunities, but also brings new and complex risks. An empowering and safe digital environment that puts people first is therefore a core policy goal of the digital age. Through the lens of a fictional family navigating these opportunities and risks, this paper looks at how digital transformation impacts us as individuals, be it as citizens, consumers, or workers. It outlines the policy landscape, and describes the international, multi-stakeholder, and nuanced efforts needed to strike a balance between different rights, interests, and values. A background paper for the 2022 Digital Economy Ministerial meeting, this paper supports senior policy makers in designing and achieving a human-centric digital transformation.
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10/11/2022
Report
Global Outlook on Financing for Sustainable Development 2023
Successive crises including COVID-19, Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine and the climate emergency are exacerbating inequalities between and within countries and stifling progress to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Agreement. While developed countries deployed historic stimulus packages to build back better, developing countries lacked fiscal and monetary buffers to respond. Countries with the fewest resources face challenging trade-offs between short-term rescue and long-term financing for a sustainable recovery. The SDG financing gap in developing countries grew due to a drop in available resources called upon in the Addis Ababa Action Agenda coupled with rising financing needs. Official Development Assistance (ODA), or aid, played an important role to help narrow the gap, but could not do so on its own. Global crises open a window of opportunity for SDG alignment of broader resources to narrow the gap. Growing trillions in developed countries aim to reduce risks, including environmental, social, and governance (ESG) criteria. However, resources are not reaching the countries most in need. Urgent action is needed to remove bottlenecks for a more equitable and needs-based allocation of sustainable finance.
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09/11/2022
Paper
Unlocking the potential of youth-led social enterprises
Young people increasingly prioritise pursuing careers with positive social and environmental impacts. Social enterprises can help them fulfil this ambition. Youth-led social enterprises can address pressing social and environmental issues while providing young people with opportunities in the labour market. Despite these benefits, these entities often struggle due to the age of their founders and the specificities of their businesses. This paper analyses the drivers and potential benefits of youth-led social enterprises (section 1), assesses the challenges they face (section 2) and provides policy guidance to address them through tailored support programmes based on best practice examples and experiences from OECD countries and beyond (section 3).
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07/11/2022
Report
Latin American Economic Outlook 2022
What challenges and opportunities does the green transition entail for Latin America and the Caribbean? This 15th edition of the Latin American Economic Outlook explores options for the region to recast its production models, transform its energy matrix and create better jobs in the process. It argues that, for this transition to be just, stronger social-protection systems and open dialogue must help build new, sustainable social contracts. In support of this ambitious agenda, the report presents an array of financing options, including green finance, and advocates for renewed international partnerships.
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31/10/2022
Paper
Fostering creativity and critical thinking in university teaching and learning
Developed as one of the resources within the context of the OECD /Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI)ERI project entitled “Fostering and assessing students' creative and critical thinking skills in higher education”, this paper focuses on ways in which students’ creativity and critical thinking can be fostered in higher education by contextualising such efforts within the broader framework of academics’ professional learning. Intended for system or institution-level stakeholders, the paper draws on the empirical literature, review articles, and meta-analyses, reports, institutional websites, and input from project participants to: (a) highlight models and best practices of academics’ professional learning as well as institutional and individual factors which render professional learning desirable, valued, and effective, and (b) elaborate key elements in professional learning which institutions can introduce and/or strengthen to promote instruction that fosters cognitive, social and emotional processes associated with students’ creativity and critical thinking.
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11/10/2022
Report
Disability, Work and Inclusion
One in seven working-age adults identifies as having a disability in OECD countries, a share that is also substantial and growing among young people (8% in 2019). Many of them are excluded from meaningful work and have low levels of income and social engagement. This report documents the current labour market situation of people with disability, who continue to face large employment, unemployment and poverty gaps compared with people without disability. The report concludes that the goal set up some twenty years ago of making disability policies pro-active and employment-oriented has not been achieved. In particular, key areas of disability policy have received too little attention so far, such as policies to support young people with disability, improve the skills of people with disability, and intervene early in the course of a health problem or disability. The report calls for rigorous disability mainstreaming in all relevant policies and practices as the missing link to better labour market inclusion.
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10/10/2022
Report
International Migration Outlook 2022
The 2022 edition of International Migration Outlook analyses recent developments in migration movements and the labour market inclusion of immigrants in OECD countries. It also monitors recent policy changes in migration governance and integration in OECD countries. This edition includes a special chapter on the policy responses by OECD countries to the large inflow of refugees from Ukraine as well as a series of three short chapters on international students analysing respectively recent trends, attraction and retention policies as well as the economic impact of international students. The Outlook also includes country notes and a detailed statistical annex.
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03/10/2022
Report
Education at a Glance 2022
Education at a Glance is the authoritative source for data on the state of education around the world. It provides information on the structure, finances and performance of education systems across OECD countries and partner economies. More than 100 charts and tables in this publication – as well as much more data available online – provide key information on the output of educational institutions; the impact of learning across countries; access, participation and progression in education; the financial resources invested in education; and teachers, the learning environment and the organisation of schools.The 2022 edition focuses on tertiary education, looking at the rise of tertiary attainment and the associated benefits for individuals and for societies. It also considers the costs of tertiary education and how spending on education is divided across levels of government and between the state and individuals. A specific chapter is dedicated to the COVID crisis and the shift from crisis management to recovery. Two new indicators on professional development for teachers and school heads and on the profile of academic staff complement this year's edition.
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22/09/2022
Paper
Food insecurity and food assistance programmes across OECD countries
Food systems are expected to ensure food security and nutrition for a growing population. While food insecurity is more acute in developing countries, OECD countries are also affected. The current high-level of food prices could push more people into poverty and hunger. Governments have a role to play in easing impacts on households. They run or support food assistance programmes, such as school meal programmes, food voucher programmes and food banks’ operations. Based on OECD countries’ experiences, this paper provides a roadmap to identify and overcome evidence gaps on food insecurity and food assistance programmes to allow for a better targeting and improved efficiency of such programmes. This paper highlights the need for a coordinated effort by OECD countries to collect regular and comparable information.
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